OBSERVATIONS
OBSERVATIONS AS A RESEARCH METHOD
Types of observation: naturalistic v controlled observation
Disclosed v undisclosed observation
Structured v unstructured observation
Participant v non-participant observation
Observational design: behavioural categories; event sampling; time sampling
Observations are a vital tool in the psychologist's arsenal and, if done properly, can provide oodles of ecologically valid and detailed information about all manner of behaviours. However, they also have many pitfalls and raise a whole host of methodological and ethical issues. Observations can be subdivided in many ways, each with its own distinct advantages and disadvantages.
Please do not get confused over experiments that use observations as a method of assessing participants (e.g., the DV). For example, Bandura’s Bobo Dolls and Piliavin’s work on bystander apathy on the New York subway. These are not observations; they are experiments first and foremost. We all know what questionnaires are and have all filled out lots of them over the years. Basically, a questionnaire is a list of written questions that can gather a lot of relevant information relatively quickly and cheaply.
But when it comes to determining observations from correlations and experiments that use observations, things get trickier. It can be confusing to determine the type of research method used if observations are in the mix. This is because observations are not just used in surveys; they are also used in experiments and correlations. For example, Piliavin’s work on bystander apathy on the New York subway was designed to measure apathy, and raters had to observe how many participants helped a distressed passenger.
If tally had only been carried out on one set of participants, e.g., it was the only measure taken from participants, then it would indeed be considered an observation. But the results from one train were compared with another train, which had a different IV. Therefore, this study is not an observation; it is an experiment that used observations to gather its data.
The criterion for choosing observation over other methods is that, in true observation, participants are doing only one thing, e.g., ALL participants are being watched on one subway train, with no other measures or conditions. This point also applies to interviews and questionnaires.
CONTROLLED vs NATURALISTIC refers to the environment.
STRUCTURED vs UNSTRUCTURED refers to the method of recording behaviour
NATURALISTIC OBSERVATIONS
Natural experiments are easy to explain. People or animals are observed in their natural environment, without any sort of intervention or manipulation of variables and both with and without their knowledge. The researcher observes behaviour in its natural environment as many of the ethologists studying animal behaviour record their information.
EXAMPLES INCLUDE OF NATURALISTIC OBSERVATIONS
Seyfarth & Cheney’s research on the warning calls of the vervet monkey
Sylva’s study of play in young children.
Much of the work carried out by Konrad Lorenz
Ainsworth’s study of attachments in Ugandan women would be a human example of naturalistic observation.
Being sane in insane places by Rosenhan
ADVANTAGES OF NATURALISTIC OBSERVATIONS
Ecological validity: Clearly, this provides data of very high ecological validity, as it has not been tainted by observer intervention, with the observed not usually knowing that their behaviour is being observed.
Reliability: There is a bias issue. For example, if a researcher is examining aggressive acts in a football game and assumes that boys will be more aggressive, the results may be inadvertently interpreted in this way.
Reduced demand characteristics: For the same reason, there should be no demand characteristics. If you’re unaware that you’re being observed, you won’t try to please the researcher.
Ethics is a major problem with many observational studies, and especially with naturalistic studies. Not knowing you’re being watched creates issues with privacy, and participants not consenting to take part
Detailed: The information collected tends to be more detailed and provides a fuller picture of behaviour than the sort of information that can be collected in a laboratory. Think of the criticisms of behaviour in the strange situation
DISADVANTAGES OF NATURALISTIC OBSERVATIONS
However, control of the environment is not possible, and confounding variables make it impossible to replicate the observation or control its effects, so the researcher cannot be certain what factors are creating the behaviour being observed
Sometimes this is the only possible way of doing research, especially if people are unwilling or unable to complete questionnaires or interviews
CONTROLLED OBSERVATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGY
Controlled observations are conducted under standardised conditions, typically in a laboratory, where extraneous variables such as noise, timing, temperature, and distractions are carefully regulated. This control reduces interference and allows the researcher to isolate the behaviour of interest. One-way mirrors or observation rooms are often used, and participants are usually aware they are being observed.
EVALUATION OF CONTROLLED OBSERVATIONS
A key strength is reliability. The high level of control allows procedures to be standardised and replicated by other researchers. This includes consistent conditions, potential variable manipulation, and tight control of extraneous influences. However, this comes at the cost of ecological validity. Behaviour observed in artificial settings may not reflect real-world behaviour, limiting generalisability.
STRUCTURED OBSERVATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGY
Structured observations refer to how behaviour is recorded, not where the observation takes place. The researcher uses pre-determined categories and observation schedules to systematically record behaviour. This often involves coding schemes, where specific behaviours are counted or categorised. Ainsworth’s Strange Situation is a classic example in which the behaviour of caregivers and strangers is deliberately organised to observe infant attachment responses.
EVALUATION OF STRUCTURED OBSERVATIONS
Structured observations increase control over confounding variables and make it easier to identify patterns and potential cause-and-effect relationships. They also produce quantitative data, which is easier to analyse statistically. However, ecological validity is often reduced because behaviours are triggered by artificial or staged situations. Participants may also alter their behaviour due to awareness of observation, introducing demand characteristics.
UNSTRUCTURED OBSERVATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGY
Unstructured observations involve recording behaviour in as much detail as possible without predefined categories. The researcher documents all relevant behaviour, often in narrative form. This approach is particularly useful for studying behaviours that are rare or poorly understood, and it is commonly used in naturalistic settings.
EVALUATION OF UNSTRUCTURED OBSERVATIONS
A major strength is the depth and richness of data. Detailed descriptions allow for a more comprehensive understanding of behaviour, increasing internal validity by capturing authentic behavioural patterns. However, the lack of standardisation introduces subjectivity. Observer bias is more likely, as researchers decide what is important without fixed criteria. This reduces reliability and makes replication more difficult.
APPLICATION SCENARIOS
The playground study is a naturalistic observation because behaviour is observed in a real-world setting without manipulation. If no coding system is used, it is also unstructured, as behaviour is recorded descriptively.
The classroom seating study is a structured observation. The researcher manipulates the environment by changing seating arrangements and systematically observes participation, indicating both control and planned observation.
The social media tracking study is structured. Behaviour is recorded using predefined metrics through an app, even though participants behave in their usual environment. The method of recording is systematic.
The family home camera study is naturalistic because it takes place in a real environment. If behaviour is later coded into categories, it becomes structured. Awareness of cameras may still influence behaviour.
The cafeteria study is structured. The researcher manipulates the environment by introducing new food options and records behaviour systematically before and after the change.
The toddler toy study is controlled and structured. The environment is arranged by the researcher, and behaviour is observed within predefined conditions, often with systematic recording of choices and duration
UNSTRUCTURED OBSERVATIONS
An unstructured observation involves recording and describing every instance of the observed behaviour in as much detail as possible. This is useful if the behaviour that researchers are interested in occurs infrequently and is more typical in naturalistic observation.
EVALUATING UNSTRUCTURED OBSERVATIONS
A strength of unstructured observation is the richness of data obtained. Since behaviour is recorded in great detail, researchers can view it comprehensively. This adds to the internal validity of the observational technique. In addition, this type of observation is also prone to observer bias due to the lack of objective behaviour categories.
ACTIVITIES
Look at the following scenarios and consider the characteristics of each observation method and the specific context of each study to determine whether they are structured or naturalistic observations.
Scenario: Researchers want to understand how children interact with each other in a playground setting. They go to a local park and observe children playing, taking notes on how often they engage in cooperative versus competitive play.
Question: Is this a structured or naturalistic observation? Explain your choice, considering factors like the level of control over variables and the potential influence of the observer's presence.
:Scenario: A study is conducted to see how different seating arrangements in a classroom affect student participation. The researcher changes the seating arrangement every week and observes student engagement and participation in class discussions.
Question: Is this a structured or naturalistic observation? Justify your answer, considering the manipulation of variables and the potential for observer effects.
Scenario: Researchers are interested in how teenagers use social media daily. They ask a group of teenagers to use their social media as they usually would, but with an app that tracks their usage patterns.
Question: Is this a structured or naturalistic observation? Provide reasons for your choice, considering the extent of the researcher's intervention and its impact on participants' behaviour.
Scenario: With the family's consent, researchers set up cameras in various rooms of a family’s house to understand how siblings interact at home. The researchers then observe and analyse the footage to study the siblings' behaviour.
Question: Is this a structured or naturalistic observation? Explain your decision, considering ethical considerations, control over the research environment, and the potential awareness of being observed by family members.
Scenario: A school wants to see how introducing new healthy food options in the cafeteria affects students' food choices. Researchers record the types of food students select before and after the introduction of these new options.
Question: Is this a structured or naturalistic observation? Justify your response, considering the level of manipulation of cafeteria offerings and potential influences on students' choices.
Scenario: To study toy preferences, toddlers are brought into a room with various types of toys, and researchers observe which toys the children choose to play with and for how long.
Question: Is this a structured or naturalistic observation? Support your answer by considering the level of control over the toy selection environment and the potential impact of observer presence on toddlers' choices.
UNDISCLOSED OR COVERT OBSERVATION
ALSO KNOWN AS Disclosed v undisclosed observation
Covert (hidden) observation involves observing subjects without their knowledge. In this method, the observer remains hidden or disguises their intent to avoid influencing the behaviour of those being observed. This approach can provide more authentic data since subjects behave naturally, unaware they are being studied.
However, it raises ethical concerns about privacy and consent; on the other hand, it is where subjects are aware they are being observed. This method is more ethically transparent as it respects the subjects' right to know they are part of a study. However, it can lead to changes in behaviour (known as the Hawthorne effect), as subjects might alter their actions because they know they are being watched.
Overt observations, where participants are aware that they are being observed, can still be vulnerable to threats to internal validity. These threats can affect the accuracy and reliability of the collected data. Here are some threats to validity in overt observations: Participants may modify their behaviour to align with what they believe the observer expects or desires. They may try to conform to social norms or the perceived goals of the study, leading to behaviour that does not accurately reflect their natural tendencies.: Participants might present themselves in a more favourable or socially desirable light during overt observations. This bias occurs when individuals alter their behaviour to appear more virtuous, cooperative, or polite rather than behaving authentically.: An observer's presence can influence participants' behaviour, especially when overt. Participants may feel self-conscious, become nervous, or change their behaviour because they know they are being watched. This can result in the Hawthorne effect, where participants behave differently due to the awareness of being observed.: Reactivity refers to participants' awareness of being observed, prompting them to change their behaviour, whether by conforming to perceived expectations or rebelling. Reactivity can lead to altered behaviour patterns that do not represent participants' usual actions.: Even in overt observations, observer bias can occur if the observer's expectations, beliefs, or interpretations influence their data collection and analysis. This bias can skew the results if the observer unintentionally records or interprets data in a way that aligns with their preconceived notions.: In overt observations, participants may self-select to participate in the study based on their comfort level with being observed. This self-selection can lead to a biased sample that does not accurately represent the entire population of interest.: The presence of an observer can sometimes influence participants through non-verbal cues, such as facial expressions, body language, or subtle feedback. These cues can inadvertently signal certain behaviours to the participants.
:The Hawthorne effect is a specific type of reactivity. It refers to the phenomenon where individuals change their behaviour or improve their performance because they are aware of being studied or observed. This effect was originally identified in a series of studies at the Western Electric Hawthorne Works in Chicago, where workers' productivity improved when they knew they were being observed, regardless of whether their working conditions were changed.
Several specific tactics and tools can be employed for covert observations, specifically tailored to avoid detection by the subjects being observed. These methods are designed to ensure the observer remains unnoticed, allowing the collection of unaltered, natural behaviour data. Here are some techniques: unaltered techniques.
EVALUATING COVERT OBSERVATIONS
An advantage of covert observation is that investigator effects are minimised. Since the investigator is concealed, it is less likely that their behaviour will influence the participants' performance. As a result, there is less chance of demand characteristics occurring. This means the participants’ behaviour will be more natural and representative of their everyday behaviour.
The ethical issues associated with the covert observation method are intrinsic to its design. Participants are unaware they are participating in research and can’t give fully informed consent or withdraw from the study. However, observing human behaviour in public places such as shopping centres, parks, and restaurants is perfectly legal.
TECHNIQUES FOR COVERT OBSERVATIONS
Hiding: The observer positions themselves in a concealed location to observe the subjects without being seen. This could be behind a one-way mirror, in a hidden room, or camouflaged in the environment. Hiding is particularly useful in controlled environments or natural settings where subjects can be observed without knowledge.
Hidden Cameras and Microphones: Cameras and microphones are placed out of sight or disguised as everyday objects. This is often used in natural settings where direct observation by a researcher might alter the subjects' behaviour.
Participant Observation: The researcher becomes part of the group being studied, observing from within without revealing their true purpose. This method is often used in ethnographic studies.
Unobtrusive Measures: Observing behaviours or outcomes without the participants' knowledge. Examples include analyzing discarded trash to study consumption habits or using existing records and data to study patterns without direct interaction.
Online Observation: Observing behaviours in online environments, such as social media, forums, or other digital platforms, where the observer's presence is unknown to the participants.
Surveillance Techniques: Utilising surveillance tools like GPS tracking, website cookies, and other data-gathering technologies that monitor without the subjects' awareness
Disguise: The observer uses a disguise to blend into the environment. This could involve wearing clothing that matches the studied population, using props, or altering one's appearance to avoid recognition. Disguises are especially useful in public settings or situations where the observer needs to move among the subjects. Sunglasses: While more subtle than other methods, sunglasses can conceal the observer's gaze, making it less obvious where they look. This can be helpful in situations where direct eye contact might alert subjects to being observed.
Reflective Surfaces: Using mirrors or other reflective surfaces to observe subjects indirectly. This method allows the observer to watch subjects without directly facing them, reducing the likelihood of being noticed.
Long-Distance Observation Tools: Binoculars or long-range cameras can be used to observe subjects from a distance. This method is beneficial in outdoor or large settings where the observer can maintain a physical distance.
Inconspicuous Note-Taking: Small, discreet devices or methods for recording observations, like a hidden voice recorder or shorthand notes on a smartphone, can be essential for minimising visibility while still capturing data.
Each method minimises the observer's presence and avoids influencing the subjects' behaviour. However, while these techniques can be effective for gathering unaltered observational data, they must be used with careful consideration of ethical guidelines, particularly around privacy and informed consent.
DISCLOSED OR OVERT OBSERVATION
Participants know they are being observed. This reduces ethical issues of consent and privacy, but reduces validity due to increased demand characteristics. An overt observation is where the observations are not hidden, and the participants know they are being observed, for example, filming publicly (overt non‐participant) or joining a gym and informing the other members that you are doing an observation (overt participant). This method is more ethically transparent as it respects the subjects' right to know they are part of a study. However, it can lead to changes in behaviour (known as the Hawthorne effect), as subjects might alter their actions because they know they are being watched.
EVALUATING OVERT OBSERVATIONS
A strength of the overt method is that it is more ethical than the covert method, as the participants know their behaviour is being observed. it is possible to inform them in advance of the aims and thus obtain informed consent. This awareness of participation also allows participants to exercise their right to withdraw themselves or their data from the investigation before, during or after the observation is conducted. As a result, the reputation of psychological research as being ethical is protected.
A drawback of using an overt style of observation is the possibility of investigator effects. A bias can occur in which the investigator's actions influence participants' behaviour in ways not intended (e.g., body language or facial expressions). As a result, participants may change their behaviour in response to demand characteristics and act according to their perception of the research aims. Therefore, authentic and natural behaviour is not being observed, thus reducing the internal validity of the observation because it is overt.
ACTIVITIES
Here are some scenarios involving animals and babies where students need to decide whether covert or overt observation would be more suitable:
In each scenario, students should weigh the benefits and drawbacks of both observation methods and consider factors such as the potential influence of the observer’s presence on subjects' behaviour, the naturalness of the environment, ethical considerations, and the study's goals. The choice between covert and overt observation often hinges on balancing the need for authentic behaviour against ethical concerns and the practicalities of the research setting.
Scenario: Researchers want to study the social interactions of a group of chimpanzees in a zoo enclosure.
Question: Should this be a covert or overt observation, and why? Consider aspects like the primates' natural behaviour and the potential impact of the observer's presence.
:Scenario: A study aims to understand how children aged 5-7 interact in a playground setting, with a focus on forming friendships.
Question: Would you recommend a covert or overt approach, and what factors influence this decision? Consider an observer's impact on children's behaviour and ethical considerations.
:Scenario: A company wants to assess how different office layouts affect employee productivity and interaction.
Question: Should the observation be covert or overt, and why did you choose? Consider the Hawthorne effect and the ethical implications of monitoring employees without their knowledge.
:Scenario: Sociologists are interested in studying social behaviours and interactions in city centre nightlife environments.
Question: Why is a covert or overt observation method more suitable? Consider the environment's dynamics and the influence of an observer's presence on social behaviour.
Scenario: Researchers are interested in studying smartphone usage in restaurants, particularly among families. They want to understand how smartphone use affects family interactions during meals.
Question: Would you recommend covert or overt observation, and what factors inform your decision? Consider the impact of observer presence on restaurant behaviour and the potential for demand characteristics.
PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
Here, the researchers get involved with the participants they are observing. It can be either covert (a group member quietly observing others without their knowledge) or overt (a group member using a camera to record the behaviour of other members with their full knowledge). Festinger (1956) joined a cult to observe how they would react when their predicted end-of-the-world deadline came and went. The cult leader reassured his flock that their prayers had saved the planet! This is an example of undisclosed participant observation. Researchers may occasionally join in but make others aware of their role as psychologists.
On occasions, researchers have been able to infiltrate groups and remain members for a period, allowing for detailed, longitudinal information to be gathered, for example, about the behaviour and motivations of street gangs and religious cults. It isn't easy to see how such groups could be studied in any other way.
EVALUATING PARTICIPANT OBSERVATIONS
A strength of using participant observation in psychological research is that the researcher can obtain in-depth data because the observer is near the participants. There are ethical issues with this type of deceitful observation, and the researcher may unwittingly interfere with the group dynamics and behaviour.
NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
The more likely scenario is that participants are observed from a distance rather than that the researchers infiltrate the group.
ETHICS OF OBSERVATIONS
Observations raise several unique ethical issues. These vary depending on the nature of the observation taking place, but here are a few:
Consent: participants are often unaware of being observed, so they cannot consent to participate in your research.
Debrief: Often, there is no opportunity for a debrief. For example, in Piliavin’s observation of bystander apathy on the New York subway, participants were unaware. They would have left the train before researchers had a chance to debrief.
Deception: Participants' unawareness of observation is itself a form of deception. Researchers may also cause additional deception by using stooges. Again, Piliavin used research team members to pretend to be blind or drunk.
DESIGNING OBSERVATIONS FOR OBSERVATIONS
This is an example of a coding scheme which is also known as a behavioural checklist. The observer simply ticks the relevant category when one of the behaviours occurs. Behavioural categories should be mutually exclusive (not overlapping) but in reality this is often difficult to do with a checklist.
Sometimes observations are made continuously, with observers recording everything that happens in detail – perhaps using a video camera. Sometimes researchers use a sampling technique, as it may be difficult to record everything. Two techniques commonly used are event sampling and time sampling.
Advantages of using a coding scheme include that it is fairly simple to carry out and that it provides quantitative data that can be analysed statistically.
DISADVANTAGES OF DESIGNING OBSERVATIONS
However, observation using coding schemes has a main weakness. It gives a very restricted view of what is actually happening. The researcher may miss important behaviour, and the data is not as in-depth as simply observing behaviour which is occurring.
BEHAVIOURAL CATEGORIES FOR FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
EVENT SAMPLING
Event sampling involves the researcher recording an event each time it occurs. For example, ticking a box every time somebody picks their nose. However, behaviours should not be missed as in time sampling; if too many observations happen at once, it may be difficult to record everything.
TIME SAMPLING
What is time sampling observation?
In a time sample observation, you observe a person, say, for example, every five minutes over a set period of time – usually an hour. The observations are only brief but include the activity the person is engaged in and the level of involvement at that particular time.
