EDEXCEL SPECIFICATION
TOPIC 1: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
TOPIC OVERVIEW
Students must show understanding that social psychology is about aspects of human behaviour that involve the individual’s relationship to other persons, groups, and society, including cultural influences on behaviour.
Individual differences and developmental psychology must be considered when learning about obedience, prejudice, personality, and cultural influences on social behaviour.
SUBJECT CONTENT
WHAT STUDENTS NEED TO LEARN
1.1 CONTENT
OBEDIENCE
1.1.1 Theories of obedience, including agency theory and social impact theory.
1.1.2 Research into obedience, including Milgram’s research and three of his variation studies: Rundown Office Block (Experiment 10), Telephonic Instructions (Experiment 7), Ordinary Man Gives Orders (Experiment 13), demonstrating situational factors that encourage dissent.
1.1.3 Factors affecting obedience and dissent/resistance to obedience, including individual differences (personality and gender), situation, and culture.
PREJUDICE
1.1.4 Explanations and research into prejudice, including social identity theory (Tajfel and Turner, 1979, 1986) and realistic conflict theory (Sherif, 1966).
1.1.5 Factors affecting prejudice (and discrimination), including individual differences (personality), situation, and culture.
1.1.6 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN OBEDIENCE/PREJUDICE
● Obedience is affected by personality.
● Prejudice can be explained by personality.
1.1.7 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY IN OBEDIENCE/PREJUDICE
● Obedience is influenced by gender and culture, which stem from environmental factors.
● Prejudice is influenced by culture, deriving from environmental factors.
1.2 METHODS
SELF-REPORTING DATA
1.2.1 Designing and conducting questionnaires and interviews, considering researcher effects.
1.2.2 Unstructured, semi-structured, and structured interviews, open, closed (including ranked scale) questions.
1.2.3 Alternate hypotheses.
SAMPLE SELECTION AND TECHNIQUES
1.2.4 Random, stratified, volunteer, and opportunity techniques.
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE DATA
1.2.5 Analysis of quantitative data: calculating measures of central tendency, frequency tables, graphical presentation using bar charts, measures of dispersion (range and standard deviation).
1.2.6 Analysis of qualitative data using thematic analysis.
ETHICAL GUIDELINES
1.2.7 British Psychological Society (BPS) code of ethics and conduct (2009), including risk management in psychological research.
1.3 STUDIES
CLASSIC STUDY
1.3.1 Sherif et al. (1954/1961) - Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation: The Robbers Cave Experiment.
ONE CONTEMPORARY STUDY FROM THE FOLLOWING:
1.3.2 Burger (2009) - Replicating Milgram: Would people still obey today?
1.3.3 Reicher and Haslam (2006) - Rethinking the Psychology of Tyranny.
1.3.4 Cohrs et al. (2012) - Individual Differences in Ideological Attitudes and Prejudice.
1.4 KEY QUESTIONS
1.4.1 One key question relevant to today’s society, discussed as a contemporary issue for society rather than an academic argument.
1.4.2 Concepts, theories and/or research from social psychology applied to the key question.
SUITABLE EXAMPLES:
● How can social psychology be used to reduce prejudice in situations like crowd behaviour or rioting?
● How can social psychology explain heroism?
1.5 PRACTICAL INVESTIGATION
1.5.1 One practical research exercise to gather data relevant to social psychology topics, adhering to ethical principles.
IN CONDUCTING THE PRACTICAL RESEARCH EXERCISE, STUDENTS MUST:
● Design and conduct a questionnaire to gather both qualitative and quantitative data to observe a difference.
● Consider questionnaire construction, sampling, and ethical issues.
● Collect and analyse quantitative data using measures of central tendency and dispersion, including range and standard deviation as appropriate, bar graphs, and frequency tables.
● Collect and analyse qualitative data using thematic analysis.
● Evaluate strengths, weaknesses, and possible improvements of the questionnaire.
● Write up the procedure, results, and discussion sections of a report.
SUITABLE EXAMPLES:
● A questionnaire to see if males or females perceive themselves as more obedient.
● An investigation into in-group favouritism.
1.6 ISSUES AND DEBATES
EXAMPLES OF ISSUES AND DEBATES IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:
● Ethics (e.g., researching obedience and prejudice, implications of findings).
● Practical issues in research design (e.g., questionnaires, social desirability).
● Reductionism (e.g., drawing conclusions from social data).
● Comparisons between behavioural explanations using different themes (e.g., two theories of prejudice).
● Psychology as a science (e.g., validity in questionnaires).
● Culture and gender influences on prejudice and obedience.
● Nature-nurture (e.g., personality vs. situational influences on obedience).
● Development of psychological understanding over time (e.g., comparing Milgram's and Burger's work).
● Social control issues (e.g., reducing prejudice, obeying authority).
● Use of psychological knowledge in society (e.g., conflict reduction).
● Issues in socially-sensitive research (e.g., racism or cultural differences in social psychology).
TOPIC 2: COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
TOPIC OVERVIEW
Students must show understanding that cognitive psychology is about the role of cognition/cognitive processes in human behaviour. Processes include perception, memory, selective attention, language, and problem-solving. The cognitive topic area draws on the likeness of cognitive processing to computer processing.
Individual differences and developmental psychology must be considered when learning about memory differences, memory deficits, and how this develops as the brain ages.
SUBJECT CONTENT
WHAT STUDENTS NEED TO LEARN
2.1 CONTENT
MEMORY
2.1.1 The working memory model (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974).
2.1.2 The multi-store model of memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968), including short- and long-term memory, and ideas about information processing, encoding, storage, retrieval, capacity, and duration.
2.1.3 Explanation of long-term memory – episodic and semantic memory (Tulving, 1972).
2.1.4 Reconstructive memory (Bartlett, 1932), including schema theory.
2.1.5 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN MEMORY
● Memory can be affected by individual differences in processing speed or by schemas that guide the reconstructive nature of memory.
● Autobiographical memory is by nature individual.
2.1.6 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY IN MEMORY
● Sebastián and Hernández-Gil (2012) discuss developmental issues in memory span development, which is low at 5 years old, then develops as memory develops up to 17 years old.
● Dyslexia affects children's memory span and working memory, affecting learning.
● The impact of Alzheimer's on older people and the effects on memory.
2.2 METHODS
EXPERIMENTS
2.2.1 Designing and conducting experiments, including field and laboratory experiments.
2.2.2 Independent and dependent variables.
2.2.3 Experimental and null hypotheses.
2.2.4 Directional (one-tailed) and non-directional (two-tailed) tests and hypotheses.
2.2.5 Experimental and research designs: repeated measures, independent groups, and matched pairs.
2.2.6 Operationalisation of variables, extraneous variables, and confounding variables.
2.2.7 Counterbalancing, randomisation, and order effects.
2.2.8 Situational and participant variables.
2.2.9 Objectivity, reliability, and validity (internal, predictive, and ecological).
2.2.10 Experimenter effects, demand characteristics, and control issues.
2.2.11 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
● Analysis of quantitative data: calculate measures of central tendency, frequency tables, measures of dispersion (range and standard deviation), percentages.
● Graphical presentation of data (bar graph, histogram).
2.2.12 DECISION MAKING AND INTERPRETATION OF INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
● Non-parametric test of difference: Mann-Whitney U and Wilcoxon.
● Probability and levels of significance (p≤.10, p≤.05, p≤.01).
● Observed and critical values, use of critical value tables, and sense-checking of data.
● One- or two-tailed regarding inferential testing.
● Type I and type II errors.
● Normal and skewed distribution.
2.2.13 CASE STUDY OF BRAIN-DAMAGED PATIENTS
● Including Henry Molaison (HM) and the use of qualitative data, including strengths and weaknesses of the case study.
2.3 STUDIES
CLASSIC STUDY
2.3.1 Baddeley (1966b) - Working memory model: The influence of acoustic and semantic similarity on long-term memory for word sequences.
ONE CONTEMPORARY STUDY FROM THE FOLLOWING:
2.3.2 Schmolck et al. (2002) - Semantic knowledge in patient HM and other patients with bilateral medial and lateral temporal lobe lesions.
2.3.3 Steyvers and Hemmer (2012) - Reconstruction from memory in naturalistic environments.
2.3.4 Sebastián and Hernández-Gil (2012) - Developmental pattern of digit span in Spanish population.
2.4 KEY QUESTIONS
2.4.1 One key question relevant to today’s society, discussed as a contemporary issue for society rather than an academic argument.
2.4.2 Concepts, theories and/or research (as appropriate to the chosen key question) from cognitive psychology.
SUITABLE EXAMPLES:
● How can psychologists’ understanding of memory help patients with dementia?
● How can knowledge of working memory inform the treatment of dyslexia?
2.5 PRACTICAL INVESTIGATION
2.5.1 One practical research exercise to gather data relevant to topics covered in cognitive psychology, adhering to ethical principles in both content and intention.
IN CONDUCTING THE PRACTICAL RESEARCH EXERCISE, STUDENTS MUST:
● Design and conduct a laboratory experiment to gather quantitative data, including descriptive statistics analysis and a non-parametric test of difference.
● Make design decisions, including experimental design, sampling, operationalisation, control, ethical considerations, hypothesis construction, experimenter effects, and demand characteristics.
● Collect, present, and comment on data gathered, including measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode as appropriate); measures of dispersion (range, standard deviation as appropriate); bar graphs, histograms, frequency graphs; normal distribution if appropriate, and draw conclusions.
● Use a Mann-Whitney U or Wilcoxon non-parametric test of difference to test significance (as appropriate), including level of significance and critical/observed values.
● Evaluate strengths, weaknesses, and possible improvements.
● Write up the procedure, results, and discussion sections of a report.
SUITABLE EXAMPLES:
● Dual task experiment to investigate components of working memory.
● Experiment on acoustic similarity of words and the effect on short-term memory.
2.6 ISSUES AND DEBATES
EXAMPLES OF ISSUES AND DEBATES IN COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY:
● Ethics (e.g., Henry Molaison (HM) and confidentiality).
● Practical issues in research design (e.g., how to measure memory and the validity of experimental design).
● Reductionism (e.g., isolating brain parts responsible for memory).
● Comparisons between ways of explaining behaviour using different themes (e.g., different memory models).
● Psychology as a science (e.g., laboratory experiments and controls).
● Culture and gender (e.g., how memory is reconstructed based on cultural differences or gender stereotypes).
● Nature-nurture (e.g., Henry Molaison (HM) and brain function = nature; reconstructive memory emphasises experiences = nurture).
● Development of psychological understanding over time (e.g., development of working memory model; development from multi-store model).
● Issues of social control (e.g., using understanding of memory in court situations).
● Use of psychological knowledge in society (e.g., using understanding of memory to help with memory 'loss').
● Issues related to socially sensitive research (e.g., research on dementia is socially sensitive for the individual)
TOPIC 3: BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
TOPIC OVERVIEW
Students must understand that biological psychology is about the mechanisms within our body and how they affect our behaviour, focusing on aggression.
Individual differences and developmental psychology must be considered when learning about issues such as aggression caused by an accident and how the function of brain structures can be affected by the environment.
SUBJECT CONTENT
WHAT STUDENTS NEED TO LEARN
3.1 CONTENT
3.1.1 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) AND NEUROTRANSMITTERS
● Structure and role of neurons, the function of neurotransmitters, and synaptic transmission.
3.1.2 EFFECT OF RECREATIONAL DRUGS
● The impact of recreational drugs on the transmission process in the CNS.
3.1.3 STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN
● Different brain areas (e.g., pre-frontal cortex) and brain functioning as an explanation for aggression as human behaviour.
3.1.4 ROLE OF EVOLUTION AND NATURAL SELECTION
● The role of evolution and natural selection in explaining human behaviour, including aggression.
3.1.5 BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATION OF AGGRESSION
● Biological explanations of aggression as an alternative to Freud’s psychodynamic explanation, referring to the different parts of the personality (id, ego, superego), the importance of the unconscious, and catharsis.
3.1.6 ROLE OF HORMONES
● The role of hormones (e.g., testosterone) in explaining human behaviour such as aggression.
3.1.7 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
● Damage to the brain may be affected by individual differences in case studies of brain-damaged patients when it is assumed there are no individual differences.
● Freud's view of personality development shows individual differences.
3.1.8 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
● The role of evolution in human development.
● The role of hormones in human development.
3.2 METHODS
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
3.2.1 The use of correlational research in psychology, including co-variables.
● Types of correlation: positive, negative, and including the use of scatter diagrams.
● Issues surrounding the use of correlations in psychology; issues with cause and effect and other variables.
ANALYSIS OF CORRELATIONAL DATA
3.2.2 Analysis of, use of, and drawing conclusions from correlational studies, including scatter diagrams, using inferential statistical testing (Spearman’s rho) and issues of statistical significance; levels of measurement; critical and observed values.
● The use of alternate, experimental, and null hypotheses. The use of independent variables (IV) and dependent variables (DV) in experiments and co-variables in correlations. The use of control groups, randomising to groups, sampling, levels of measurement (ordinal, interval, nominal), reasons for using Spearman’s rho.
OTHER BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH METHODS
3.2.3 Brain-scanning techniques (CAT, PET, and fMRI).
● The use of brain-scanning techniques to investigate human behaviour, e.g., aggression.
● One twin study and one adoption study, e.g., Gottesman and Shields (1966); Ludeke et al. (2013).
3.3 STUDIES
CLASSIC STUDY
3.3.1 Raine et al. (1997) - Brain Abnormalities in Murderers Indicated by Positron Emission Tomography.
ONE CONTEMPORARY STUDY FROM THE FOLLOWING:
3.3.2 Li et al. (2013) - Abnormal Function of the Posterior Cingulate Cortex in Heroin Addicted Users During Resting-State and Drug-Cue Stimulation Task.
3.3.3 Brendgen et al. (2005) - Examining Genetic and Environmental Effects on Social Aggression: A Study of 6-Year-Old Twins.
3.3.4 Van den Oever et al. (2008) - Prefrontal Cortex AMPA Receptor Plasticity is Crucial for Cue-Induced Relapse for Heroin-Seeking.
3.4 KEY QUESTIONS
3.4.1 One key question relevant to today’s society, discussed as a contemporary issue for society rather than as an academic argument.
3.4.2 Concepts, theories, and/or research (as appropriate to the chosen key question) from biological psychology.
SUITABLE EXAMPLES:
● How effective is drug therapy for treating addictions? For example, methadone for treating heroin addiction.
● What are the implications for society if aggression is found to be caused by nature and not nurture?
3.5 PRACTICAL INVESTIGATION
3.5.1 One practical research exercise to gather data relevant to topics covered in biological psychology, adhering to ethical principles.
IN CONDUCTING THE PRACTICAL RESEARCH EXERCISE, STUDENTS MUST:
● Design and conduct a correlational study.
● Link their research to aggression or attitudes to drug use.
● Include inferential statistical testing (Spearman’s rho) and explain the significance of the result and the use of levels of significance. Students must also be able to use descriptive statistics (strength/direction) to explain the relationship.
● Produce an abstract of the research method and a discussion section that includes conclusions.
● Include research question/hypothesis, research method, sampling, ethical considerations, data-collection tools, data analysis, results, and discussion.
● Consider strengths and weaknesses of the correlational study and possible improvements.
SUITABLE EXAMPLES:
● A correlation between age and attitudes towards drug use.
● A correlation to see if there is a relationship between height and self-rated aggressive tendencies.
3.6 ISSUES AND DEBATES
EXAMPLES OF ISSUES AND DEBATES IN BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY:
● Ethics (e.g., studying aggression and how findings are used; research ethics such as confidentiality and informed consent).
● Practical issues in the design and implementation of research (e.g., issues in scanning and measuring the complexity of the brain).
● Reductionism (e.g., focusing on specific aspects of aggression when studying the brain).
● Comparisons between ways of explaining behaviour using different themes (e.g., biological vs. psychodynamic explanations for aggression).
● Psychology as a science (e.g., synaptic transmission; brain-scanning techniques).
● Culture and gender (e.g., hormonal differences between males and females influencing behaviour such as aggression).
● Nature-nurture (e.g., brain localisation in aggression and environmental influences in aggression).
● Development of psychological understanding over time (e.g., development of scanning techniques and their contributions to knowledge).
● Social control issues (e.g., using knowledge of brain function to control individuals).
● Use of psychological knowledge in society (e.g., understanding causes of aggression to address them).
● Issues related to socially-sensitive research (e.g., confidentiality).
TOPIC 4: LEARNING THEORIES
TOPIC OVERVIEW
Students must show understanding that learning theories are about learning from the environment, effects of conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, the role of reward, and social learning.
Individual differences and developmental psychology must be considered when learning about the effect of rewards and punishment on individuals and how children develop through different ways of learning, including social learning.
SUBJECT CONTENT
WHAT STUDENTS NEED TO LEARN
4.1 CONTENT
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
4.1.1 The main features of classical conditioning, including unconditioned stimulus (UCS); unconditioned response (UCR); conditioned stimulus (CS); neutral stimulus (NS); conditioned response (CR); extinction, spontaneous recovery, and stimulus generalisation.
4.1.2 Pavlov (1927) experiment with salivation in dogs.
OPERANT CONDITIONING
4.1.3 The main features of operant conditioning, including types of reinforcement and punishment (positive and negative).
4.1.4 Properties of reinforcement, including primary and secondary reinforcement and schedules of reinforcement.
4.1.5 Behaviour modification, including ‘shaping’ behaviour.
4.1.6 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
● Observation, imitation, modelling, and vicarious reinforcement.
4.1.7 Social learning ‘stages’ of attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation (reinforcement).
4.1.8 Bandura (1961, 1963) original Bobo doll experiments.
4.1.9 Bandura (1965) Bobo doll experiment with vicarious reinforcement.
4.1.10 LEARNING THEORIES AND PHOBIAS
● How learning theories explain the acquisition and maintenance of phobias.
4.1.11 Treatments for phobias based on learning theories, including systematic desensitisation and one other.
4.1.12 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
● Differences due to environmental influences and experiences, such as rewards, punishments, and observed models.
4.1.13 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
● Development through patterns of rewards and punishments.
● Social learning theory’s idea that development is through observation of others.
4.2 METHODS
HUMAN RESEARCH
4.2.1 Use of observational research in psychology, including gathering qualitative and quantitative data (e.g., tallying, event, and time sampling).
● Types of observation: participant, non-participant, structured, naturalistic, overt, and covert.
● Use of content analysis as a research method.
ANIMAL RESEARCH
4.2.2 Use of animals in laboratory experiments and relating findings to humans.
● Ethical issues regarding the use of animals, including the Scientific Procedures Act (1986) and Home Office Regulations.
ANALYSIS OF DATA
4.2.3 Analysis of quantitative data using inferential statistics: levels of measurement; reasons for using a chi-squared test; comparing observed and critical values for significance; chi-squared test.
● Analysis of qualitative data using thematic analysis.
SCIENTIFIC STATUS OF PSYCHOLOGY
4.2.4 Including replicability, reliability, validity (internal, predictive, ecological), reductionism, falsification, empiricism, hypothesis testing, and use of controls.
4.3 STUDIES
CLASSIC STUDY
4.3.1 Watson and Rayner (1920) - Little Albert: Conditioned Emotional Reactions.
ONE CONTEMPORARY STUDY FROM THE FOLLOWING:
4.3.2 Becker et al. (2002) - Eating Behaviours and Attitudes Following Prolonged Exposure to Television Among Ethnic Fijian Adolescent Girls.
4.3.3 Bastian et al. (2011) - Cyber-Dehumanisation: Violent Video Game Play Diminishes Our Humanity.
4.3.4 Capafóns et al. (1998) - Systematic Desensitisation in the Treatment of the Fear of Flying.
4.4 KEY QUESTIONS
4.4.1 One key question of relevance to today’s society, discussed as a contemporary issue for society rather than an academic argument.
4.4.2 Concepts, theories, and/or research from learning theories applied to the key question.
SUITABLE EXAMPLES:
● Is the influence of role models and celebrities a cause of anorexia?
● Should airline companies offer treatment programmes for fear of flying?
4.5 PRACTICAL INVESTIGATION
4.5.1 Two observations (or one observation if both qualitative and quantitative data are gathered).
IN CONDUCTING THE PRACTICAL RESEARCH EXERCISE, STUDENTS MUST:
● Relate observations to an aspect of learned behaviour, e.g., behaviour of different sexes, driving characteristics, age-related behaviour, politeness, and helping behaviour.
● Ensure observations enable the gathering of both qualitative and quantitative data (note-taking, tallying, and thematic analysis).
● Analyse findings, including a chi-squared test.
● Evaluate strengths, weaknesses, and possible improvements of the study.
● Write up results of quantitative data, including graphs and tables.
● Write up results of qualitative analysis (thematic analysis).
SUITABLE EXAMPLES:
● Age and sex affecting driving speed.
● Differences in helpful or polite behaviour in men and women.
4.6 ISSUES AND DEBATES
EXAMPLES OF ISSUES AND DEBATES IN LEARNING THEORIES:
● Ethics (e.g., ethical issues using animals in studies).
● Practical issues in research design (e.g., generalising from animal-study findings to humans).
● Reductionism (e.g., behaviourism reduces behaviour to parts).
● Comparisons between ways of explaining behaviour using different themes (e.g., different learning theories).
● Psychology as a science (e.g., methodology; focus on measurable behaviourism).
● Culture (e.g., reinforcement patterns in learning theory, social learning theory) and gender (e.g., in practical research).
● Nature-nurture (e.g., learned vs. biological characteristics).
● Development of psychological understanding over time (e.g., impact of video game violence; modern therapy practice).
● Issues of social control (e.g., learning theories in therapy and social control).
● Use of psychological knowledge in society (e.g., rewards shaping behaviour in schools or prisons).
● Issues related to socially-sensitive research (e.g., the power of a therapist).
TOPIC 5: CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
TOPIC OVERVIEW
Students must understand that clinical psychology is about explaining and treating mental health issues and the different ways of treating them, including counselling and drug treatments.
Individual differences and developmental psychology must be considered when learning about links between personality factors and mental disorders, as well as genetic influences (nature) or environmental influences (nurture) within different explanations for mental health disorders.
SUBJECT CONTENT
WHAT STUDENTS NEED TO LEARN
5.1 CONTENT
5.1.1 DIAGNOSIS OF MENTAL DISORDERS
● Understanding deviance, dysfunction, distress, and danger.
5.1.2 CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS FOR MENTAL HEALTH
● DSM-IVR or DSM-V and ICD for mental health, including reliability and validity of diagnoses.
5.1.3 SCHIZOPHRENIA AND ONE OTHER DISORDER
For schizophrenia:
● Description of symptoms and features, including thought insertion, hallucinations, delusions, and disordered thinking.
● The function of neurotransmitters as a theory/explanation.
● One other biological theory/explanation.
● One non-biological theory/explanation.
For the other disorder:
● Description of symptoms and features.
● Two explanations/theories: one biological and one non-biological.
5.1.4 TREATMENTS FOR SCHIZOPHRENIA AND ANOTHER DISORDER
For schizophrenia and the other disorder:
● Two treatments for each disorder, one biological and one psychological. The two treatments for schizophrenia must come from different topic areas. The two treatments for the other disorder must also come from different topic areas, which may overlap with those used for schizophrenia.
5.1.5 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
● Cultural effects can lead to individual differences in mental health disorders, such as a non-biological explanation for schizophrenia.
● Cultural effects can lead to different diagnoses of mental health disorders, affecting reliability and validity.
5.1.6 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
● Issues around genes and mental health, such as genetic or biochemical explanations for schizophrenia, can affect development.
5.2 METHODS
AWARENESS OF HEALTH AND CARE PROFESSIONS COUNCIL (HCPC) GUIDELINES
5.2.1 Awareness of HCPC guidelines for clinical practitioners.
RESEARCHING MENTAL HEALTH
5.2.2 The use of longitudinal, cross-sectional, cross-cultural methods, meta-analysis, and the use of primary and secondary data.
USE OF CASE STUDIES
5.2.3 Use of case studies to understand mental health, including an example study:
● Lavarenne et al. (2013) - Containing Psychotic Patients with Fragile Boundaries: A Single Group Case Study.
USE OF INTERVIEWS IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
5.2.4 The use of interviews to study mental health, including an example study:
● Vallentine et al. (2010) - Psycho-educational Group for Detained Offender Patients: Understanding Mental Illness.
ANALYSIS OF DATA
5.2.5 Within the methods mentioned, analysis of quantitative data using both descriptive and inferential statistics (chi-squared, Spearman’s, Wilcoxon, and Mann-Whitney U as appropriate).
● Analysis of qualitative data using thematic analysis and grounded theory.
5.3 STUDIES
CLASSIC STUDY
5.3.1 Rosenhan (1973) - On Being Sane in Insane Places.
ONE CONTEMPORARY STUDY ON SCHIZOPHRENIA
5.3.2 Carlsson et al. (2000) - Network Interactions in Schizophrenia: Therapeutic Implications.
ONE CONTEMPORARY STUDY ON ANOTHER DISORDER
For Depression:
5.3.3 Kroenke et al. (2008) - The PHQ-8 as a Measure of Current Depression in the General Population.
5.3.4 Williams et al. (2013) - Combining Imagination and Reason in the Treatment of Depression: A Randomised Control Trial of Internet-Based Cognitive Bias Modification and Internet-CBT for Depression.
For Anorexia:
5.3.5 Scott-Van Zeeland et al. (2013) - Evidence for the Role of EPHX2 Gene Variants in Anorexia Nervosa.
5.3.6 Guardia et al. (2012) - Imagining One’s Own and Someone Else’s Body Actions: Dissociation in Anorexia Nervosa.
For Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD):
5.3.7 Masellis et al. (2003) - Quality of Life in OCD: Differential Impact of Obsessions, Compulsions, and Depression Comorbidity.
5.3.8 POTS Team including March et al. (2004) - Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, Sertraline, and their Combination for Children and Adolescents with OCD.
5.4 KEY QUESTIONS
5.4.1 One key question of relevance to today’s society, discussed as a contemporary issue for society rather than an academic argument.
5.4.2 Concepts, theories, and/or research (as appropriate to the chosen key question) from clinical psychology.
SUITABLE EXAMPLES:
● How do different societies define mental health disorders?
● What are the issues surrounding mental health in the workplace?
5.5 PRACTICAL INVESTIGATION
5.5.1 One practical research exercise to gather data relevant to topics covered in clinical psychology, adhering to ethical principles.
IN CONDUCTING THE PRACTICAL RESEARCH EXERCISE, STUDENTS MUST:
● Perform summative content analysis.
● Analyse at least two sources (e.g., radio interviews, newspapers, magazines) to compare attitudes towards mental health.
SUITABLE EXAMPLES:
● Comparing how attitudes have changed over time.
● How different sources report on mental health.
5.6 ISSUES AND DEBATES
EXAMPLES OF ISSUES AND DEBATES IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY:
● Ethics (e.g., issues of diagnosing mental disorders such as labelling; obtaining consent for participation in research; HCPC guidelines for practitioners).
● Practical issues in the design and implementation of research (e.g., balancing validity with reliability).
● Reductionism (e.g., isolating causes of mental disorders and non-holistic diagnoses).
● Comparisons between ways of explaining behaviour using different themes (e.g., ICD and DSM; different explanations for mental health issues).
● Psychology as a science (e.g., research using biological methods; treatments like drug therapies; laboratory experiments).
● Culture and gender (e.g., cultural differences in diagnosis practices, gender differences in disorder prevalence).
● Nature-nurture (e.g., different theories of mental disorder causation, biological vs. social explanations).
● Development of psychological understanding over time (e.g., changes in DSM; evolving therapies and explanations).
● Social control issues (e.g., mental health policies as a form of social control).
● Use of psychological knowledge in society (e.g., therapies and treatments for mental health).
● Issues related to socially-sensitive research (e.g., mental health and cultural factors).
TOPIC 6: CRIMINOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
TOPIC OVERVIEW
Students must show understanding that criminological psychology is about the definition and causes of crime and anti-social behaviour, as well as the identification and treatment of offenders undertaken by forensic investigators.
Individual differences and developmental psychology must be considered when learning about possible causes of criminal behaviour, such as labelling, self-fulfilling prophecy, and social learning.
SUBJECT CONTENT
WHAT STUDENTS NEED TO LEARN
6.1 CONTENT
EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME AND ANTI-SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR
6.1.1 Biological explanations, including brain injury, amygdala and aggression, XYY syndrome, and personality.
6.1.2 Social explanations, including labelling and self-fulfilling prophecy.
UNDERSTANDING THE OFFENDER
6.1.3 Cognitive interview and ethical interview techniques.
6.1.4 The use of psychological formulation to understand the function of offending behaviour in the individual.
TREATMENTS FOR OFFENDERS
6.1.5 One cognitive-behavioural treatment, e.g., CBT, social skills training, anger management, or assertiveness training.
6.1.6 One biological treatment, e.g., improved diet or hormone treatment.
6.1.7 FACTORS INFLUENCING EYE-WITNESS TESTIMONY
● Including consideration of reliability (e.g., post-event information and weapon focus). Studies may overlap with those used in criminological psychology methods.
6.1.8 FACTORS INFLUENCING JURY DECISION-MAKING
● Including characteristics of the defendant and pre-trial publicity, including studies in this area.
6.1.9 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
● Personality as a factor in criminal/anti-social behaviour.
● Individual differences affecting whether a self-fulfilling prophecy occurs, e.g., regarding developing criminal or anti-social behaviour.
6.1.10 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
● The self-fulfilling prophecy is an explanation for criminal/anti-social behaviour development.
● Social learning theory accounts for criminal/anti-social behaviour development.
● Other causes for criminal/anti-social behaviour, including biological, can explain development.
6.2 METHODS
RESEARCH METHODS
6.2.1 Research methods used to assess eyewitness effectiveness, including laboratory and field experiments, and case studies.
SAMPLE SELECTION AND TECHNIQUES
6.2.2 Random, stratified, volunteer, and opportunity sampling techniques.
ISSUES OF RELIABILITY, VALIDITY, OBJECTIVITY, CREDIBILITY, AND ETHICS
6.2.3 Consideration of these issues in research within criminological psychology.
DATA ANALYSIS
6.2.4 Analysis of quantitative data: calculating measures of central tendency, frequency tables, measures of dispersion (range and standard deviation), correlations, and meta-analysis.
● Analysis and conclusions from quantitative data using inferential statistical testing (chi-squared, Spearman, Mann-Whitney U, Wilcoxon), considering statistical significance; levels of measurement; critical and observed values.
● Analysis of qualitative data using thematic analysis and grounded theory.
6.3 STUDIES
CLASSIC STUDY
6.3.1 Loftus and Palmer (1974) - Reconstruction of Automobile Destruction: An Example of the Interaction Between Language and Memory.
ONE CONTEMPORARY STUDY FROM THE FOLLOWING:
6.3.2 Bradbury & Williams (2013) - Diversity and Citizen Participation: The Effects of Race on Juror Decision-Making.
6.3.3 Valentine & Mesout (2009) - Eyewitness Identification Under Stress in the London Dungeon.
6.3.4 Howells et al. (2005) - Brief Anger Management Programmes with Offenders: Outcomes and Predictors of Change.
6.4 KEY QUESTIONS
6.4.1 One key issue relevant to today’s society, discussed as a contemporary issue for society rather than an academic argument.
6.4.2 Concepts, theories, and/or research (as appropriate to the chosen key question) from criminological psychology.
SUITABLE EXAMPLES:
● Is eyewitness testimony too unreliable to trust?
● Should jury bias lead to the abolishment of juries?
6.5 PRACTICAL INVESTIGATION
6.5.1 One practical research exercise to gather data relevant to topics covered in criminological psychology, adhering to ethical principles.
IN CONDUCTING THE PRACTICAL RESEARCH EXERCISE, STUDENTS MUST:
● Conduct a questionnaire, interview, or experiment.
● Gather qualitative and/or quantitative data, ensuring quantitative data for analysis (qualitative data may be converted for analysis).
● Include inferential statistical testing (chi-squared, Mann-Whitney U, Wilcoxon, or Spearman’s rho).
● Provide research question/hypothesis, research method, sampling, ethical considerations, data collection tools, data analysis, results, and discussion.
● Evaluate strengths, weaknesses, and possible improvements.
SUITABLE EXAMPLES:
● Experiment into the use of cognitive interviews concerning recall of a specific event.
● View a crime/courtroom drama and conduct interviews/questionnaires on participants about the reasons for defendants' criminal actions.
6.6 ISSUES AND DEBATES
EXAMPLES OF ISSUES AND DEBATES IN CRIMINOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY:
● Ethics (e.g., effects of unreliability of jury decision-making, effects of unreliability of eyewitness testimony, issues of informed consent).
● Practical issues in research design (e.g., using mock juries/artificial situations due to inability to manipulate real trial conditions).
● Reductionism (e.g., using experiments to test eyewitness testimony issues such as weapon focus; biological explanations for criminal behaviour).
● Comparisons between ways of explaining behaviour using different themes (e.g., different explanations for criminal behaviour: biological, social psychology).
● Psychology as a science (e.g., use of experiments and field experiments, biological explanations).
● Culture and gender (e.g., as factors influencing jury decision-making).
● Nature-nurture (e.g., biological vs. social/learning explanations for criminal behaviour).
● Development of psychological understanding over time (e.g., developments from Loftus and Palmer's study).
● Social control issues (e.g., use of treatments and therapies for crime or anti-social behaviour).
● Use of psychological knowledge in society (e.g., warnings about eyewitness testimony reliability).
● Issues related to socially-sensitive research (e.g., criminal behaviour causes related to social factors).
TOPIC 7: CHILD PSYCHOLOGY
TOPIC OVERVIEW
Students must show understanding that child psychology is about development from before birth to adolescence and beyond, understanding how childhood experiences affect later development.
Individual differences and developmental psychology must be considered when learning about the effects of age, gender, social situation, privation, and deprivation on development.
SUBJECT CONTENT
WHAT STUDENTS NEED TO LEARN
7.1 CONTENT
ATTACHMENT, DEPRIVATION, AND PRIVATION
7.1.1 Bowlby’s work on attachment.
7.1.2 Ainsworth’s work on attachment, including types of attachment and the Strange Situation procedure.
7.1.3 Research into deprivation (short-term and long-term effects) and ways to mitigate negative effects.
7.1.4 Research into privation and the possibility of reversing negative effects.
7.1.5 Research into day care, including advantages and disadvantages for the child, and what constitutes good and poor-quality day care.
7.1.6 CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH IN ATTACHMENT
● Cross-cultural research into attachment types and the nature-nurture issues regarding development.
7.1.7 AUTISM
● Features of autism.
● One biological explanation for autism.
● One other explanation for autism.
● Therapies for helping children with autism.
7.1.8 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
● Attachment type can affect individuals differently, such as issues of child temperament.
● Positive and negative effects of day care can be affected by individual differences, such as gender or temperament.
7.1.9 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
● Effects of day care on development.
● Effects of attachment interactions on development, including deprivation, privation, and separation.
● Effects of developmental disorders like autism on development.
7.2 METHODS
OBSERVATION
7.2.1 Use of observational research in child psychology, including gathering qualitative and quantitative data (e.g., tallying).
● Types of observation: participant, non-participant, overt, and covert.
QUESTIONNAIRES/INTERVIEWS
7.2.2 Use of questionnaires and interviews in child psychology, gathering qualitative and quantitative data.
● Issues in questionnaire/interview methods: semi-structured, structured, unstructured interviews, sampling, open/closed questions, social desirability, demand characteristics.
CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH
7.2.3 Use of cross-cultural research in child psychology, including Strange Situation, nature-nurture issues, and cross-sectional vs. longitudinal designs.
● Use of meta-analysis in cross-cultural research to draw conclusions on the universality of attachment types.
ETHICS IN CHILD RESEARCH
7.2.4 Research ethics, including children’s rights, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC, 1989), and participation/protection issues.
DATA ANALYSIS
7.2.5 Analysis of quantitative data: measures of central tendency, frequency tables, dispersion (range, standard deviation).
● Analysis and conclusions from quantitative data using inferential statistics (chi-squared, Spearman, Mann-Whitney U, Wilcoxon); issues of statistical significance, levels of measurement, critical and observed values.
● Analysis of qualitative data using thematic analysis and grounded theory.
7.3 STUDIES
CLASSIC STUDY
7.3.1 van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) - Cross-Cultural Patterns of Attachment: A Meta-Analysis of the Strange Situation.
ONE CONTEMPORARY STUDY FROM THE FOLLOWING:
7.3.2 Cassibba et al. (2013) - Attachment the Italian Way.
7.3.3 Gagnon-Oosterwaal et al. (2012) - Pre-Adoption Adversity and Self-Reported Behaviour Problems in 7-Year-Old International Adoptees.
7.3.4 Li et al. (2013) - Timing of High-Quality Child Care and Cognitive, Language, and Preacademic Development.
7.4 KEY QUESTIONS
7.4.1 One issue of relevance to today’s society, explaining the issue and applying concepts, theories, and/or research from child psychology.
7.4.2 Concepts, theories, and/or research from child psychology as used in this specification.
SUITABLE EXAMPLES:
● What issues should parents consider when choosing day care for their child?
● Is international adoption beneficial or detrimental for a child?
7.5 PRACTICAL INVESTIGATION
7.5.1 One practical research exercise to gather data relevant to topics covered in child psychology, adhering to ethical principles.
IN CONDUCTING THE PRACTICAL RESEARCH EXERCISE, STUDENTS MUST:
● Conduct a study using a questionnaire, interview, or observation.
● Gather qualitative and/or quantitative data, ensuring quantitative data is analysed (qualitative data can be converted for analysis).
● Include inferential statistical testing (chi-squared, Mann-Whitney U, Wilcoxon, Spearman’s rho).
● Include research question/hypothesis, research method, sampling, ethical considerations, data collection tools, data analysis, results, and discussion.
● Evaluate strengths, weaknesses, and possible improvements.
SUITABLE EXAMPLES:
● Interview an adult about the relationship between strong childhood attachment experiences and strong adult relationships.
● Interview a parent of a child under 3 about positive experiences using day care for their child.
7.6 ISSUES AND DEBATES
EXAMPLES OF ISSUES AND DEBATES IN CHILD PSYCHOLOGY:
● Ethics (e.g., balancing participation/protection rights, UNCRC).
● Practical issues in research (e.g., objective data in observations/meta-analyses).
● Reductionism (e.g., reducing behaviour to specific attachment types).
● Comparisons between behavioural explanations (e.g., Bowlby’s vs. Ainsworth’s theories).
● Psychology as a science (e.g., using cross-cultural research to address nature-nurture questions).
● Culture and gender (e.g., cultural findings on attachment and child-rearing).
● Nature-nurture (e.g., universality of attachment types from cross-cultural studies).
● Development of psychological understanding over time (e.g., Bowlby’s work and follow-up studies).
● Social control issues (e.g., findings about day care and parenting styles as forms of control).
● Use of psychological knowledge in society (e.g., therapy for problem behaviour, parenting advice).
● Issues related to socially-sensitive research (e.g., developmental issues, adoption).
TOPIC 8: HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY
TOPIC OVERVIEW
Students must show understanding that health psychology is about understanding health from a biological, cognitive, and social basis and promoting good health.
Individual differences and developmental psychology must be considered when learning about peer influence, labelling as explanations for drug misuse, and biological and learning explanations for drug misuse.
SUBJECT CONTENT
WHAT STUDENTS NEED TO LEARN
8.1 CONTENT
ISSUES AROUND DRUG TAKING
8.1.1 Including addiction, tolerance, physical and psychological dependency, and withdrawal.
EXPLANATIONS OF DRUG ADDICTION
8.1.2 One biological explanation each for alcohol, heroin, and nicotine addiction, including mode of action.
8.1.3 One learning explanation each for alcohol, heroin, and nicotine addiction (explanations may apply to more than one drug).
TREATMENTS FOR DRUG ADDICTION
8.1.4 Two treatments each for alcohol, heroin, and nicotine addiction, including aversion therapy (treatments may apply to more than one drug).
8.1.5 ANTI-DRUG CAMPAIGNS
● One anti-drug campaign and the psychological strategies behind it.
8.1.6 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
● Biological and social factors in drug misuse, including personality effects.
8.1.7 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
● Social interactions during development can lead to drug misuse, including learning processes.
8.2 METHODS
USE OF ANIMALS
8.2.1 Use of animal laboratory experiments to study drugs.
● Ethical issues in using animals for drug studies.
HUMAN DRUG STUDIES
8.2.2 Two research methods using humans to study drugs.
● Ethical issues in studying human drug use.
CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH
8.2.3 Use of cross-cultural research, including nature-nurture issues related to drug misuse.
DATA ANALYSIS
8.2.4 Analysis of quantitative data: measures of central tendency, frequency tables, measures of dispersion (range, standard deviation).
● Analysis and conclusions from quantitative data using inferential statistical testing (chi-squared, Spearman, Mann-Whitney U, Wilcoxon), considering statistical significance; levels of measurement; critical and observed values.
● Analysis of qualitative data using thematic analysis and grounded theory.
8.3 STUDIES
CLASSIC STUDY
8.3.1 Olds & Milner (1954) - Positive Reinforcement Produced by Electrical Stimulation of Septal Area and Other Regions of Rat Brain.
ONE CONTEMPORARY STUDY FROM THE FOLLOWING:
8.3.2 Mundt et al. (2012) - Peer Selection and Influence Effects on Adolescent Alcohol Use: A Stochastic Actor-Based Model.
8.3.3 Dixit et al. (2012) - Biosocial Determinants of Alcohol Risk Behaviour: An Epidemiological Study in Urban and Rural Communities of Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh.
8.3.4 Pengpid et al. (2012) - Screening and Brief Intervention for Hazardous and Harmful Alcohol Use Among Hospital Out-Patients in South Africa: Results from a Randomised Controlled Trial.
8.4 KEY QUESTIONS
8.4.1 One issue relevant to today’s society, discussing and explaining the issue using concepts, theories, and/or research from health psychology.
8.4.2 Concepts, theories, and/or research from health psychology as used in this specification.
SUITABLE EXAMPLES:
● How can psychologists encourage smoking cessation?
● Government intervention in health behaviours vs. freedom of choice: to what extent is government intervention appropriate?
8.5 PRACTICAL INVESTIGATION
8.5.1 One practical research exercise to gather data relevant to topics covered in health psychology, adhering to ethical principles.
IN CONDUCTING THE PRACTICAL RESEARCH EXERCISE, STUDENTS MUST:
● Conduct a questionnaire, interview, or content analysis.
● Gather qualitative and/or quantitative data, ensuring quantitative data is analysed (qualitative data can be converted for analysis).
● Include inferential statistical testing (chi-squared, Mann-Whitney U, Wilcoxon, or Spearman’s rho).
● Provide research question/hypothesis, research method, sampling, ethical considerations, data collection tools, data analysis, results, and discussion.
● Evaluate strengths, weaknesses, and possible improvements.
SUITABLE EXAMPLES:
● Content analysis of pop music or TV programmes, focusing on references to drugs.
● Content analysis of newspaper articles/news comparing references to alcohol and nicotine.
8.6 ISSUES AND DEBATES
EXAMPLES OF ISSUES AND DEBATES IN HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY:
● Ethics (e.g., use of animals and humans in drug research).
● Practical issues in research design (e.g., generalising from animal studies to humans).
● Reductionism (e.g., isolating variables in experiments with animals).
● Comparisons between ways of explaining behaviour (e.g., learning vs. biological explanations for drug misuse).
● Psychology as a science (e.g., animal experiments in drug misuse research).
● Culture (e.g., cross-cultural differences in drug use) and gender differences.
● Nature-nurture (e.g., learning vs. biological explanations for drug misuse).
● Development of psychological understanding over time (e.g., explanations for drug misuse).
● Social control issues (e.g., treating drug misuse as criminal requiring treatment).
● Use of psychological knowledge in society (e.g., developing treatment ideas for drug misuse).
● Issues related to socially-sensitive research (e.g., researching vulnerable populations about drug use).
TOPIC 9: PSYCHOLOGICAL SKILLS
TOPIC OVERVIEW
This is a synoptic section in which students draw on other qualification areas to understand conceptual and methodological issues. Students develop the ability to use theories and evidence from various psychology areas and apply them to different issues.
Relevant psychological skills are contextualised in Topics 1–8. This topic collects them together to ensure comprehensive content coverage.
Students must consider issues and debates across all topics to develop a broad understanding of key issues and debates.
SUBJECT CONTENT
WHAT STUDENTS NEED TO LEARN
9.1 METHODS
9.1.1 TYPES OF DATA
● Qualitative and quantitative data; primary and secondary data.
9.1.2 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
● Random, stratified, volunteer, and opportunity.
9.1.3 EXPERIMENTAL/RESEARCH DESIGNS
● Independent groups, repeated measures, and matched pairs.
9.1.4 HYPOTHESES
● Null, alternate, experimental; directional and non-directional.
9.1.5 QUESTIONNAIRES AND INTERVIEWS
● Open, closed (including ranked scale questions); structured, semi-structured, and unstructured interviews; self-report data.
9.1.6 EXPERIMENTS
● Laboratory and field; independent and dependent variables.
9.1.7 OBSERVATIONS
● Tallying; event and time sampling; covert, overt, participant, non-participant; structured and naturalistic observations.
9.1.8 ADDITIONAL RESEARCH METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
● Twin and adoption studies, animal experiments, case studies, scanning (CAT, PET, fMRI), content analysis, correlational research, longitudinal and cross-sectional studies, cross-cultural studies, and meta-analysis.
9.1.9 CONTROL ISSUES
● Counterbalancing, order effects, experimenter effects, social desirability, demand characteristics, participant variables, situational variables, extraneous variables, confounding variables, operationalisation of variables.
9.1.10 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
● Measures of central tendency, frequency tables, graphs (bar charts, histograms, scatter diagrams), normal distribution (including standard deviation), skewed distribution, sense-checking data, measures of dispersion (range, standard deviation).
● Production, handling, and interpretation of data, including comparisons (e.g., between means of two data sets).
Note: Formulae are not required, but competency in basic mathematical steps is expected.
9.1.11 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS - DECISION MAKING AND INTERPRETATION
● Levels of measurement.
● Appropriate choice of statistical test, criteria for Mann-Whitney U, Wilcoxon, Spearman’s rho, chi-squared.
● Directional and non-directional testing.
● Use of critical value tables, one- and two-tailed testing.
● Levels of significance, statistical terminology (e.g., p≤.05). Rejecting hypotheses, type I and type II errors, relationship between significance levels and p values.
● Observed and critical values.
9.1.12 METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES
● Validity (internal, predictive, ecological), reliability, generalisability, objectivity, subjectivity (researcher bias), credibility.
9.1.13 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
● Thematic analysis and grounded theory.
9.1.14 CONVENTIONS OF PUBLISHED PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
● Abstract, introduction, aims and hypotheses, method, results, discussion, peer review process.
9.1.15 ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH USING HUMANS
● British Psychological Society (BPS) Code of Ethics and Conduct (2009), including risk assessment in psychological research.
9.1.16 ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH USING ANIMALS
● Scientific Procedures Act (1986) and Home Office regulations.
9.2 SYNOPTIC REVIEW
9.2.1 REVIEW OF CLASSIC STUDIES ACROSS THE QUALIFICATION
● Compare and contrast studies from the classic study sections.
9.2.2 REVIEW SYNOPTICALLY THE CLASSIC STUDIES IN TERMS OF ISSUES AND DEBATES
9.2.3 APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
● Use principles of understanding, evaluation, and synopticity on unseen material.
9.3 ISSUES AND DEBATES
EXAMPLES OF ISSUES AND DEBATES ACROSS THE SPECIFICATION:
9.3.1 Ethical issues in research (animals and humans).
9.3.2 Practical issues in research design and implementation.
9.3.3 Reductionism in behaviour explanation.
9.3.4 Comparisons between different ways of explaining behaviour.
9.3.5 Psychology as a science.
9.3.6 Cultural and gender issues in psychological research.
9.3.7 Role of nature and nurture in psychology.
9.3.8 Development of psychological understanding over time.
9.3.9 Use of psychology for social control.
9.3.10 Use of psychological knowledge in society.
9.3.11 Issues related to socially-sensitive research.
COMMAND WORDS FOR EDEXCEL A LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY
Edexcel uses a range of command words to direct students on what is expected in each question. Below is a list of common command words and their meanings:
DEFINE
Provide the exact meaning of a concept or term.
E.g., Define 'classical conditioning.'
DESCRIBE
Give a detailed account of something.
E.g., Describe the process of operant conditioning.
EXPLAIN
Provide reasons or justifications for something, often with an example.
E.g., Explain how reinforcement is used in operant conditioning.
OUTLINE
Provide a brief account or summary of something.
E.g., Outline one study of attachment.
DISCUSS (A02-focused)
Explore the issue or theory, often with a balance of analysis and evaluation. In Edexcel, "Discuss" is typically used for application (A02), meaning that students are expected to apply knowledge to a scenario or case study.
E.g., Discuss how the cognitive approach explains depression in terms of faulty thinking.
EVALUATE
Examine strengths and limitations, including key studies, theories, and counter-arguments.
E.g., Evaluate the reliability of eyewitness testimony.
ASSESS
Consider the evidence or arguments and make a judgement.
E.g., Assess the usefulness of twin studies in understanding the role of genetics in behaviour.
TO WHAT EXTENT
Consider the merits of an argument and conclude how far you agree or disagree.
E.g., To what extent is the behaviourist approach applicable to explaining human behaviour?
ANALYSE
Break down information into components and explain their significance.
E.g., Analyse the impact of schema on memory recall.
COMPARE
Identify similarities and differences between two or more ideas or studies.
E.g., Compare the cognitive and biological approaches in terms of their explanations of memory.
JUSTIFY
Provide reasons or evidence to support a conclusion or decision.
E.g., Justify the use of laboratory experiments in cognitive psychology.
TYPES OF QUESTIONS IN EDEXCEL A LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY
Edexcel A Level Psychology uses a mix of short-answer and longer essay-style questions. Below is an overview of the typical mark allocations:
12-MARK QUESTIONS
12-mark questions are often split 50/50 between A01 (knowledge) and A03 (evaluation). Students need to explain or describe a theory or study (A01) and then evaluate it (A03).
Structure:
A01: Outline or describe a theory, model, or research study.
A03: Evaluate it using strengths, limitations, alternative perspectives, and methodological issues.
Example:
Evaluate the role of conditioning in explaining phobias (12 marks).
20-MARK QUESTIONS
20-mark questions typically involve a combination of A01 (knowledge), A02 (application), and A03 (evaluation).
Common breakdown:
A01: 8 marks (40%)
A02: 4 marks (20%) (application to scenarios or case studies)
A03: 8 marks (40%)
Example:
Discuss the role of cognitive processes in explaining aggression. Use relevant theories and evidence in your answer (20 marks).
EVALUATION CRITERIA FOR EDEXCEL A LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY
Edexcel requires a more detailed and methodical evaluation approach compared to AQA. Here’s what students need to focus on:
BALANCED EVALUATION
Students must critically analyse and evaluate studies or theories by considering both strengths and limitations.
Weigh up evidence and theories, comparing strengths against weaknesses.
METHOD AND DESIGN EVALUATION
Emphasis is placed on critiquing the methodological aspects of studies, such as validity, reliability, and generalisation.
Critique could involve sample size, ecological validity, ethical issues, or research design.
APPLICATION OF RESEARCH
Students need to apply their knowledge to real-world situations, discussing the practicality of research findings.
Application could relate to how research informs treatments, policy, or the understanding of everyday behaviour.
COMPARISON WITH ALTERNATIVE THEORIES
Students should compare the theory or research with alternative approaches.
Highlight how one theory may account for behaviour better than another, offering a more comprehensive explanation.
EXAMPLE QUESTIONS AND STRUCTURE
Here’s how to structure responses for typical Edexcel questions:
12-Mark Question Example:
Evaluate the role of operant conditioning in explaining behaviour (12 marks).
Structure:
A01 (6 marks):
Define operant conditioning.
Describe Skinner’s research (rats, pigeons).
Explain how reinforcement and punishment shape behaviour.
A03 (6 marks):
Evaluate the strengths (controlled experiments, replication).
Critique the artificial nature of lab settings (ecological validity).
Discuss alternative explanations (e.g., cognitive approach).
20-Mark Question Example:
Evaluate the role of biological factors in aggression. Refer to at least two studies (20 marks).
Structure:
A01 (8 marks):
Describe biological factors (e.g., testosterone, genetics).
Provide research evidence (e.g., twin studies).
A02 (4 marks):
Apply this knowledge to real-world contexts (e.g., aggression management in schools or prisons).
A03 (8 marks):
Evaluate the strengths of biological explanations (empirical evidence).
Discuss the limitations (reductionism).
Compare biological factors to alternative explanations (psychological, social).
By understanding the specific command words and how A01, A02, and A03 are assessed in Edexcel, students can better address the questions. The key is ensuring a balance between knowledge, application, and evaluation based on the demands of the question.
KEY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EDEXCEL AND AQA
Mark Distribution:
Edexcel tends to use a 50/50 split between A01 and A03 for 12-mark questions, whereas AQA often allocates more marks to A03.
Evaluation Focus:
Edexcel places greater emphasis on methodological evaluation—such as research design—compared to AQA’s broader evaluative points.
Application (A02):
Edexcel includes application questions more frequently, requiring students to apply their understanding of theories or studies to real-world scenarios.
