MEMORY ASSESSMENT

6 Feb

THE TOPIC OF MEMORY IS PART OF THE COGNITIVE APPROACH

Many students get confused because in the AQA A-level specification, Paper 1 starts with the four big topics (Social, Memory, Attachment, Psychopathology), Paper 2 comes later and introduces the Approaches (cognitive, biological, psychodynamic, behaviourist, etc.).

So when you first study Memory in Year 12, the word “cognitive approach” hasn’t been officially taught yet (unless, of course, your teacher taught you approaches first).

Not knowing that memory is part of the cognitive approach means that you don’t recognise its core features, assumptions, treatments and methods of research. As with any approach, understanding it thoroughly means you can apply it across any topic, not only AQA topics, but any cognitive topic. This means you don’t have to hardcore-learn each topic, but can use the approach’s logic and assumptions across disciplines.

WHY YOU NEED TO KNOW THIS FROM THE OFFSET

Every single approach in psychology has its own:

Core assumptions about human behaviour
Particular research methods
Typical strengths & weaknesses (evaluation points)
Links to issues & debates (e.g. reductionism, determinism, nature/nurture)

Once you learn the “template” for the cognitive approach, you can reuse the same evaluation points in many different topics across the two years: Memory, Attachment (cognitive explanations, internal working models), Psychopathology (cognitive explanations of depression, OCD, phobias), Schizophrenia (cognitive explanations), Forensic (cognitive interview, cognitive explanations of offending)

THEORETICAL MODELS

Theoretical models in cognitive psychology aim to explain how different mental processes work together as an interconnected system. These models explore functions such as memory, language, perception, attention, and decision-making, illustrating how the brain coordinates these processes to produce behaviour and thought.

HOW COGNITIVE SYSTEMS WORK TOGETHER

Cognitive systems function as a network, each performing a specific role while interacting with others to achieve complex tasks. For example:

Memory and Language work together to retrieve and articulate knowledge.
Attention and Perception: help focus on and interpret sensory information, like recognising a familiar face in a crowd.
Decision-Making and Problem-Solving: rely on information from memory and attention to evaluate options and make choices.

These processes occur seamlessly, but theoretical models break them down to study their roles and how they combine to enable behaviour.

THE MIND-AS-COMPUTER METAPHOR

Cognitive psychology often compares the human mind to a computer, drawing parallels between how both systems process information. Just as a computer stores, retrieves, and processes data to produce an output, humans follow similar mechanisms in their mental operations. This “mind-as-computer” metaphor forms a cornerstone of the cognitive approach, providing a framework for understanding mental processes.

Key comparisons include:

STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL: Humans store memories in short-term and long-term memory, akin to how computers use RAM and hard drives.
PROGRAMMING: Just as a computer follows coded instructions, humans rely on mental “programmes” or schemas to interpret and respond to their environment.
INPUT AND OUTPUT: Sensory information serves as input, which cognitive systems process to generate behavioural or verbal responses as output.

This metaphor has been instrumental in guiding research and developing theoretical models that explain how humans process information systematically. However, it also has limitations, as the mind’s emotional, social, and creative aspects extend far beyond the capabilities of a machine.

COGNITIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Experimental cognitive psychology: essentially testing cognitive processes by doing laboratory experiments
Cognitive neuropsychology: testing cognitive processes by looking at individuals with brain damage either through post-mortem or scan
Cognitive neuroscience (fMRI, PET, EEG): testing healthy people’s brain functions with scans
Cognitive science: building computer models of mental processes

KEY ISSUES AND DEBATES

DETERMINISM VERSUS FREE WILL: soft determinism (we have some conscious control over thinking)
NATURE VERSUS NURTURE: leans towards the nature side (schemas can be innate) but experience builds them
IS THE COGNITIVE APPROACH SCIENTIFIC: yes – it uses laboratory experiments, scans and replicable methods
IS THE COGNITIVE APPROACH REDUCTIONIST: Yes – it reduces complex behaviour to simple cognitive processes

EXAM TIP

Whenever a question asks you to evaluate a memory study (or any cognitive explanation), you can use points from the cognitive approach template above, and the examiner will love you for it.

BOTTOM LINE

Even though the Approaches topic comes later in the spec, start thinking of the Memory topic as “the cognitive approach in action”. It will make the rest of A-level Psychology much easier!

AQA MEMORY SPECIFICATION:

TYPES OF MEMORY: Sensory Register, Short-Term Memory and Long-Term Memory.
FEATURES OF EACH MEMORY STORE: Coding, Capacity and Duration.
MODELS OF MEMORY: The Multi-Store Model of Memory
TYPES OF LONG-TERM MEMORY: Episodic, Semantic, Procedural.
MODELS OF MEMORY: The Working Memory Model – including The Central Executive, Phonological Loop, Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad and Episodic Buffer. Features of the model: coding and capacity.
EXPLANATIONS FOR FORGETTING: Proactive and Retroactive Interference and Retrieval Failure due to the absence of cues.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE ACCURACY OF EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY: Misleading Information, including Leading Questions and Post-Event Discussion
FACTORS AFFECTING THE ACCURACY OF EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY: Anxiety.
IMPROVING THE ACCURACY OF EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY: The Cognitive Interview

MEMORY TESTS

https://memtrax.com/test/

ASSESSMENT

TYPES OF MEMORY: SENSORY REGISTER, SHORT-TERM MEMORY AND LONG-TERM MEMORY

SENSORY MEMORY

ONE MARK QUESTIONS

ODD ONE OUT
Iconic / Echoic / Procedural
ODD ONE OUT
Taste / Smell / Balance
(Odd one out is not part of standard sensory memory stores.)
Which option is NOT a type of sensory memory?
A. Iconic
B. Procedural
C. Echoic
D. Olfactory
Which of these describes the sensory register?
A. The long-term store for episodic memories
B. The initial store for raw, unprocessed sensory data
C. The part of memory used for problem solving
What happens to sensory information that is not attended to?
A. It is transferred to short term memory
B. It decays almost immediately
C. It is processed for meaning
D. It is stored for later retrieval.
Which store briefly holds visual information?
A. Echoic memory
B. Iconic memory
C. Haptic memory
D. Olfactory memory
Which sensory memory lasts the longest?
A. Iconic
B. Echoic
C. Gustatory
D. Haptic
Which statement best describes the relationship between sensory memory and consciousness?
A. Sensory memory operates outside conscious awareness
B. Sensory memory contains the information you are actively thinking about
C. Sensory memory is a form of deliberate storage
D. Sensory memory involves meaning-based processing
Sensory memory has which key feature?
A. Long duration, low detail
B. Short duration, high detail
C. Unlimited duration
D. Mainly verbal information
TRUE OR FALSE (
Sensory memory receives all sensory input, even if you are not paying attention.
Most information in sensory memory is lost unless attention selects it.
Sensory memory has unlimited duration.
Which store briefly holds visual information?
A. Echoic memory
B. Iconic memory
C. Haptic memory
D. Olfactory memory
Which sensory memory lasts the longest?
A. Iconic
B. Echoic
C. Gustatory
D. Haptic
Which option is NOT a type of sensory memory?
A. Iconic
B. Procedural
C. Echoic
D. Olfactory
Sensory memory has which key feature?
A. Long duration, low detail
B. Short duration, high detail
C. Unlimited duration
D. Mainly verbal information
Which store briefly holds visual information?
A. Echoic memory
B. Iconic memory
C. Haptic memory
D. Olfactory memory
Which of these describes the sensory register?
A. The long-term store for episodic memories
B. The initial store for raw, unprocessed sensory data
C. The part of memory used for problem solving
Which option is NOT a type of sensory memory?
A. Iconic
B. Procedural
C. Echoic
D. Olfactory
Sensory memory has which key feature?
A. Long duration, low detail
B. Short duration, high detail
C. Unlimited duration
D. Mainly verbal information
Why don’t humans consciously perceive all sensory input? (3 marks).
Explain why sensory memory is described as high-resolution but brief (3 marks).
Outline sensory memory (3 marks).
SHORT TERM MEMORY
TRUE OR FALSE
a. Information in sensory memory fades in 1–2 seconds, while short term memories last several hours.
b. Short term memories can be described, while sensory memories cannot.
c. The quality and detail of sensory memory are far superior to those of short term memory.
d. Sensory memory stores auditory information, while short term memory stores visual information.
One key difference between sensory and short term memory is that:
The most straightforward way to maintain information in short term memory is to repeat the information in a process called:
a. Chunking
b. Rehearsal
c. Revision
d. Recall
An instructor gives her students a list of terms to memorise for their biology exam and immediately asks one student to recite them. Which terms will the student most likely recall?
a. The student won’t recall any terms because they have not used rehearsal to encode them.
b. Since there was no delay, the student will remember the terms at the end of the list.
c. Since there was no delay, the student will remember the terms at the beginning of the list.
d. The student will recall only those items to which they have attached some meaning.
What is the function of short term memory, and how does it differ from sensory memory?
What is the average capacity of short term memory, and how much information can it hold?
Explain two ways information can be lost from short term memory.
In your own words, describe how attention plays a role in transferring sensory memory into short term memory.
How does rehearsal help maintain information in short term memory? Provide an example.
Which of the following would be the easiest to chunk and therefore encode and why?
a. 1982LOL
b. IEKFES
c. 278392
d. XYZZYX
Jamie wanted to contact his doctor. He looked up the number in his telephone directory. Before he dialled the number, he talked briefly with his friend. Jamie was about to phone his doctor, but had forgotten the number. Explain why Jamie forgot the number.
A mathematics teacher gives her students the following number to memorise for their geometry exam and immediately asks one student to recite it. The number is: 3.141592653589793 According to the primacy and recency effect, which numbers will the student most likely recall?
a. The student won’t recall any numbers because they have not used rehearsal to encode them.
b. Since there was no delay, the student will remember numbers at the end of the list.
c. Since there was no delay, the student will remember numbers at the beginning of the list.
d. The student will recall only those numbers to which they have attached some meaning.
e. The student will remember numbers at the beginning because they are now in long term memory, and numbers at the end because they are still in short term memory. The numbers in the middle would have been displaced

LONG-TERM MEMORY

12. What is the main difference between short-term and long-term memory?

13. Explain what happens to short-term memories that are not transferred to long-term memory.

14. In your own words, describe the role long-term memory plays in shaping who we are. Why is it considered the "record of the self"?

15. Why would the inability to transfer short-term memories to long-term memory result in conditions such as dementia?

FEATURES OF EACH MEMORY STORE: CODING, CAPACITY AND DURATION.

ENCODING QUESTIONS

1..Identify the primary type of coding used in each of the following components of the multi-store model of memory. 2 marks

Short-term memory
Long-term memory

2 Explain what is meant by encoding. 2 marks

Research has suggested that the encoding and capacity of short-term memory differ from encoding and capacity of long-term memory.
In an investigation into memory, participants were presented with two different lists of words
After seeing the lists, participants were tested on their ability to recall the words.
When tested immediately, participants found recalling the words from List A in the correct order more difficult.
When tested after 30 minutes, participants found recalling the words from List B in the correct order more difficult..

4. Using your knowledge of coding in memory, explain these findings. 4 Marks

5. Complete the missing parts of the table A, B, C and D about features of the multi-store memory model. 4 Marks

The following are all concepts relating to memory:

A  Duration
B  Capacity
C  Encoding
D  Retrieval.

6.In the table below, write which one of the concepts listed above (A, B, C or D) matches each definition. 2 marks

A researcher investigated coding in short-term memory using the same participants in both conditions.

In the first condition, he read out a list of 10 different sounding words.
In the second condition, he read out a list of 10 similar sounding words.
The researcher recorded how many words participants recalled correctly in each condition.

The table below shows the results of his study.

7. What do the mean values in the table suggest about coding in short-term memory? Justify your answer. 2 marks

PRACTICE QUIZ

1. The most straightforward way to maintain information in short-term memory is to repeat the information in a process called
a. chunking.
b. rehearsal.
c. Revisión.
d. recall. (1 mark)

2. Short-term memory is sometimes referred to as working memory because
a. To hold information in short-term memory, we must use it.
b. It takes effort to move information from sensory memory to short-term memory.
c. It is the only part of the memory system we must actively engage to retrieve previously learned information.
d. Creating short-term memories is a difficult task requiring a lot of practice. (1 mark)

3. An instructor gives her students a list of terms to memorise and immediately asks one student to recite them. Which terms will he most likely recall?
a. The end of the list (recency effect) and the middle of the list.
b. Beginning of the list (primacy effect) and the end of the list (recency effect).
c. Beginning of the list (primacy effect)
d. Only items with attached meaning (1 mark)

4. Which information is easiest to chunk?
a. 198274
b. KFCEEG
c. 278392
d. XYZZYX (2 marks)

5. Two key differences between sensory and short-term memory are that
a. The information in sensory memory fades in milliseconds, while short-term memories last for up to 30 seconds.
b. Short-term memories can be described, while sensory memories cannot.
c. The quality and detail of sensory memory are far superior to those of short-term memory.
d. Sensory memory stores auditory information, while short-term memory stores visual information. (2 marks)

6. Which situation best describes using hierarchies to memorise information?
a. Repeating each term
b. Organising notes into three themes
c. Writing definitions and reading them
d. Using flashcards (1 mark)

7. Memory researchers define forgetting as the
a. inability to retain information in working memory long enough to use it.
b. sudden loss of information after head trauma.
c. inability to retrieve information from long-term memory.
d. loss of information during transfer from short-term to long-term memory. (1 mark)

9. Which situation describes retroactive interference?
a. Samantha cannot recall her old postcode.
b. James keeps entering his old PIN.
c. Darnell travels to his old workplace on the train.
d. Fredrika calls her old boyfriend by her new boyfriend’s name (1 mark)

10. Naming as many state capitals as possible requires
a. cued recall
b. priming
c. spreading activation
d. free recall (1 mark)

11. Which pair is acoustically similar?

a. man – con
b. nurse – doctor
c. weigh – way
d. apple – radio (1 mark)

12. Priming is used when
a. He recalls only some items
b. He imagines a story linking all items
c. He is asked to name a dessert and says “cake”
d. He recalls only the first three (1 mark)

13. The inclusion of false details in memory is called the
a. priming effect
b. interference effect
c. tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
d. misinformation effect (1 mark)

14. The method of loci involves
a. rhyming
b. acronyms
c. placing items in an imagined environment
d. pairing items with memorised cues (1 mark)

15. The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is
a. believing you experienced something when you have not
b. knowing something but unable to articulate it
c. hearing something you did not
d. knowing how to do something when you cannot (1 mark)

16. Patient H.M. suffered from
a. anterograde amnesia
b. confabulation
c. retrograde amnesia
d. Korsakoff’s syndrome (1 mark)

17. A tumour impairing new LTM formation most likely affects the
a. thalamus
b. hypothalamus
c. cerebellum
d. hippocampus (1 mark)

18. Declarative memory is _______ while task memory is _______.
a. declarative; non-declarative
b. non-declarative; episodic
c. episodic; semantic
d. non-declarative; declarative (1 mark)

19. Which situation uses episodic memory?
a. Giving a date of birth
b. Recalling your birthday party
c. Asking for a capital city
d. Recalling a historical fact (1 mark)

20. Semantic memories differ from episodic memories because they
a. are personal or emotional
b. contain no word meanings
c. lacks details about how information was learned
d. include procedural skills (1 mark)

21. Korsakoff’s syndrome involves cell loss in the
a. hippocampus
b. basal ganglia
c. mammillary bodies
d. pons (1 mark)

22. Non-declarative memory associations are learned via
a. conditioning
b. habituation
c. observational learning
d. procedural learning (1 mark)

23. The physical memory trace is called the
a. engram
b. hippocampus
c. hypothalamus
d. Hebbian synapse (1 mark)

24. A Hebbian synapse is strengthened when
a. The presynaptic neuron receives information
b. stimulation can be extinguished
c. the presynaptic neuron often makes the postsynaptic neuron fire
d. the postsynaptic neuron inhibits the presynaptic neuron (1 mark)

25. Long-term potentiation refers to long-lasting
a. memory deficits
b. mnemonic potential
c. synaptic inhibition
d. strengthening of synaptic transmission (1 mark)

26. Which pair is semantically similar?
a. mad – sad
b. hammer – sandwich
c. light – height
d. book – river

TYPES OF MEMORY: Sensory Register, Short-Term Memory and Long-Term Memory.

FEATURES OF EACH MEMORY STORE: Coding, Capacity and Duration.

TYPES OF LONG-TERM MEMORY: Episodic, Semantic, Procedural.

MODELS OF MEMORY:

The Working Memory Model – including The Central Executive, Phonological Loop, Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad and Episodic Buffer. Features of the model: coding and capacity.

MULTIPLE CHOICE (1 mark each)

The phonological loop mainly uses:
a. Acoustic coding
b. Visual coding
c. Semantic coding
d. Procedural coding
The articulatory control process performs:
a. Visual pattern storage
b. Subvocal rehearsal
c. Binding across modalities
d. Spatial rotation
The phonological store retains:
a. Visual detail
b. Raw speech sounds
c. Scent information
d. Long term knowledge
The visuospatial sketchpad processes:
a. Spoken words
b. Smell and taste
c. Visual and spatial information
d. Semantic categories
The visual cache is responsible for:
a. Colour and form
b. Inner speech
c. Task switching
d. Acoustic similarity
The inner scribe is responsible for:
a. Spatial layout and movement
b. Recognising familiar words
c. Visual colour recognition
d. Semantic processing
Slave systems are “slave” because they:
a. Operate without attention
b. Are directed by the central executive
c. Store information permanently
d. Are part of long term memory
The episodic buffer allows the WMM to:
a. Maintain a visual store only
b. Rehearse speech
c. Integrate information from multiple modalities
d. Replace the phonological loop
The phonological loop’s capacity is:
a. Unlimited
b. Two seconds of sound
c. Seven visual chunks
d. Controlled by long term memory
The central executive is responsible for:
a. Storing verbal material
b. Controlling attention and switching tasks
c. Holding images indefinitely
d. Rehearsing sounds
The visuospatial sketchpad’s capacity is:
a. Unlimited
b. A small number of visual–spatial chunks
c. Determined by rehearsal speed
d. Equivalent to verbal span
The episodic buffer differs from slave systems because it:
a. Stores only visual information
b. Integrates codes into coherent episodes
c. Has no capacity limit
d. Provides subvocal rehearsal
Articulatory suppression disrupts performance because it:
a. Blocks the visual cache
b. Prevents the articulatory control process from refreshing material
c. Activates semantic memory
d. Overloads the central executive
The phonological store is most disrupted by:
a. Bright colours
b. Spatial rotation
c. Similar sounding items
d. Semantic priming
The visuospatial sketchpad must be separate from the phonological loop because:
a. They handle incompatible coding systems
b. They share identical duration
c. Both store verbal material
d. They operate without the central executive
The component that allocates attention and manages switching between tasks is the:
a. Phonological store
b. Visual cache
c. Central executive
d. Episodic buffer
A person mentally rehearsing a phone number while imagining a route is using:
a. The visual cache for both tasks
b. The phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad separately
c. The episodic buffer only
d. The phonological loop only
The episodic buffer supports tasks such as mental reasoning because it:
a. Performs long term retrieval
b. Merges verbal, visual and long term information
c. Stores all information acoustically
d. Controls the allocation of attention
The Working Memory Model is primarily:
a. A model of long term memory
b. A model of short term memory
c. A model of sensory memory
d. A model of autobiographical memory
In Baddeley and Hitch’s original (1974) version, the Working Memory Model contained:
a. One STM store and one LTM store
b. The central executive, phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad
c. The central executive, episodic buffer and semantic system
d. Only a phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad
Which component was added about 25 years later to deal with integration and LTM interface problems?
a. Phonological loop
b. Visuospatial sketchpad
c. Episodic buffer
d. Sensory register
The main reason Baddeley introduced the term “working memory” was to emphasise that STM is:
a. A permanent storage box
b. A passive container for 5–9 items
c. An active system involved in thinking and problem solving
d. Identical to long term memory
Case studies such as KF suggested that STM:
a. Is a single, undivided system
b. Can transfer visual but not verbal information to LTM
c. Has unlimited capacity for verbal information
d. Is not involved in everyday cognition
Which everyday situation best illustrates separate visual–spatial and verbal systems in STM?
a. Reading silently in a quiet room
b. Repeating a phone number to yourself
c. Navigating a busy street while talking on the phone
d. Sleeping after revision
The phonological loop is specialised for:
a. Storing shapes and colours
b. Storing autobiographical events
c. Processing and rehearsing verbal and auditory information
d. Storing semantic knowledge from LTM
The visuospatial sketchpad is specialised for:
a. Storing smells and tastes
b. Visual and spatial information such as layouts and locations
c. Episodic memories from childhood
d. Rehearsing speech-based material
The visuospatial sketchpad’s capacity is approximately:
a. 20 objects
b. 3–4 objects or chunks of visual–spatial information
c. 7 plus or minus 2 items
d. Unlimited if colour is simple
The phonological loop primarily encodes information:
a. Visually
b. Semantically
c. Acoustically (by sound)
d. Procedurally
The visuospatial sketchpad primarily encodes information:
a. By meaning alone
b. In visual and spatial formats (appearance and location)
c. As inner speech
d. As emotionally charged episodes
The phonological store (“inner ear”) is best described as:
a. An active rehearsal mechanism
b. A passive store holding sounds for 1–2 seconds
c. A long term store for speech
d. A visual pattern recogniser
The articulatory control process (“inner voice”) is best described as:
a. A buffer for multimodal information
b. An automatic store for semantic knowledge
c. A system that refreshes sounds by silent repetition
d. A system that encodes colour and shape
The central executive mainly:
a. Stores detailed visual and verbal information
b. Controls attention and allocates resources between systems
c. Stores personal episodes from the past
d. Converts STM into LTM
The episodic buffer was introduced because the original model:
a. Had no verbal store
b. Could not explain how information from different systems was bound into a single episode
c. Overestimated STM capacity
d. Already explained the link to LTM in detail
The episodic buffer is described as:
a. A processor of sound only
b. A processor of images only
c. A limited capacity store that binds verbal, visual and LTM information into coherent episodes
d. A permanent store for autobiographical memories.

SHORT QUESTIONS

State what the Working Memory Model is a model of. 1 mark
State the original three components of the Working Memory Model proposed by Baddeley and Hitch. 1 mark
Name the fourth component later added to the model and state roughly when it was introduced. 2 marks
Explain why case studies such as KF suggested that short term memory is not a single, unitary store. 2 marks
Explain why Baddeley and Hitch preferred the term “working memory” instead of “short term memory”. 2 marks
Outline what is meant by a “slave system” in the Working Memory Model. 2 marks
Close your eyes and picture your home. Now count how many windows it has. Don’t say anything out loud — just do it silently in your head.
How did you work out the number of windows? 1 mark
What does this show about how your memory handles visual and spatial information. 1 mark
Explain why the phonological loop cannot maintain verbal material for long without rehearsal. 2 marks
Describe how the visuospatial sketchpad supports tasks such as imagining layouts or navigating a route. 2 marks
Explain why the central executive is capacity-limited. 2 marks
Describe how the episodic buffer links working memory with long term memory. 2 marks
Explain why the Working Memory Model requires separate systems for verbal and visuospatial information. 2 marks
Describe the two components of the phonological loop and explain how they work together. 3 marks
Describe the roles of the phonological store and articulatory control process within the phonological loop. 3 marks
Describe the roles of the visual cache and inner scribe within the visuospatial sketchpad. 3 marks
Explain the difference between the visual cache and inner scribe and give an example of each. 3 marks
Explain how the episodic buffer integrates verbal, visuospatial and long term memory inputs. 3 marks
Explain how the episodic buffer allows working memory to combine verbal, visual and long term information. 3 marks
Explain how capacity and duration are described for the phonological loop, including how speech rate affects them. 3 marks
Explain the capacity and duration of the visuospatial sketchpad, and how task complexity influences what can be held. 3 marks
Describe how differences in coding between the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad support the claim that working memory has multiple specialised subsystems. 3 marks
Explain why the central executive is essential for coordinating complex behaviour, using one example. 3 marks
Describe what is meant by a “slave system” and explain why the model includes more than one. 4 marks
Explain the coding and capacity differences between the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad. 4 marks
Describe two limitations of the central executive and how these affect complex cognitive tasks. 4 marks
Explain the interactive roles of the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, central executive and episodic buffer in a task such as reading or mental arithmetic. 4 marks

APPLIED QUESTIONS QUESTIONS FOR THE WORKING MEMORY MODEL INCLUDE:

SCENARIO-BASED QUESTION

Read the four scenarios below. Each one involves attempting two tasks simultaneously.

A. Solving a complex algebra equation while learning a new dance routine.
B. Reciting a poem from memory while cycling.
C. Driving down a narrow mountain road while debating climate change.
D. Swimming the butterfly stroke while counting backwards in twos.

Answer the following questions:

For each scenario, is it realistically possible to carry out both tasks simultaneously without one impairing the other? Explain briefly. (2 marks)
For each scenario, identify which task relies mainly on phonological processing and which relies primarily on visuospatial processing. (2 marks)
For each scenario, classify the dual-task combination as:
• Both tasks are easy
• Both tasks are difficult
• One task is complex, and one is easier
Describe four strengths of the working memory model. (8 marks)
Describe the weaknesses of the working memory model (4).
Identify and explain one weakness of the working memory model (4 marks).
Identify and explain one strength of the working memory model (4 marks).
Outline the working memory model (6 marks).
·Outline and evaluate The Working Model of Memory (16 Marks).
·Discuss The Working Model (16 Marks).

FULL A01 MARK QUESTIONS

Describe how the central executive manages the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad when a person is driving on a difficult road while talking to a passenger. 4 marks
Explain how the episodic buffer solves the integration problem in the original Working Memory Model and how it links working memory with long term memory. 4 marks
Discuss the role of the articulatory control process in maintaining and manipulating verbal information in the phonological loop. 4 marks
Explain how the visuospatial sketchpad contributes to reasoning tasks that require mental rotation or spatial comparison. 4 marks
Describe how the episodic buffer resolves the limitations of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad when information needs to be integrated into coherent episodes. 4 marks
Explain how the Working Memory Model accounts for the simultaneous manipulation and storage of different types of information. 5 marks
Using an example such as watching a film or baking a cake from a video recipe, explain how all four components of the Working Memory Model (central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad and episodic buffer) operate together. 5 marks
Discuss how the articulatory process, phonological store, visual cache, inner scribe and episodic buffer support complex reasoning, comprehension and spatial planning. 5 marks
Analyse how each component of the Working Memory Model contributes to the active processing required for planning, problem-solving or decision-making. 5 marks
Explain, with reference to coding, capacity and function, why the Working Memory Model requires multiple controlled subsystems rather than one general-purpose short term store. 5 marks
Evaluate the Working Memory Model with reference to coding, capacity and function in each subsystem, showing how these demonstrate a fractionated temporary memory system. 6 marks
Describe, in detail, how all components of the WMM function together during tasks involving language, imagery, navigation and decision making. 6 marks
“Short term memory is not a passive box for 5–9 items; it is an active, multi-component system involved in thinking.” Using the Working Memory Model, explain this statement with reference to coding, capacity and the functions of at least two slave systems and the central executive. 6 marks
Evaluate the Working Memory Model as an explanation of short term memory, referring to evidence from neuropsychological case studies, the introduction of the episodic buffer, and the existence of separate capacity-limited slave systems. 6 marks
Describe how the Working Memory Model accounts for real-world cognition by explaining the distinct contribution of each subsystem to tasks such as comprehension, navigation, mental imagery and verbal retention. 6 mark

MARK SCHEME: WORKING MEMORY MODEL A01

·Identification of components of the model and brief outline of their function:
Likely Features are the three main components: central executive, coordinating the other two slave systems, involved in attention and higher mental processes. It has limited capacity and can process information in any mode.
The phonological loop is involved in holding speech-based information and articulatory control processes of inner speech.
Visuospatial scratchpad deals with visual/spatial information and is involved in pattern recognition and perception of movement.

Four statements/descriptions of different components of the working memory model:

Stores acoustically coded items for a short period.
Stores and deals with what items look like and their physical relationship.
Encodes data in terms of its meaning.
It acts as a form of attention and controls slave systems.

Components of the working memory model descriptions of components: phonological store, visuospatial sketch pad, articulatory process, central executive.

SIX-MARK ANSWER: THE WORKING MEMORY MODEL

The Working Memory Model (WMM) was proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974) to address limitations in the Multi-Store Model’s (MSM) description of Short-Term Memory (STM) as a passive and unitary store. The WMM describes STM as an active system with multiple components that temporarily store and manipulate information.

The model includes the Central Executive, which acts as a "boss" by allocating attention and resources to two slave systems: the Phonological Loop and the Visuospatial Sketchpad. The Phonological Loop processes verbal and auditory information and has two components: the Phonological Store, which holds sound-based information, and the Articulatory Process, which rehearses verbal information. The Visuospatial Sketchpad processes visual and spatial data and is divided into the Visual Cache, which stores visual details, and the Inner Scribe, which handles spatial information and movement.

In 2000, Baddeley added the Episodic Buffer to address criticisms of the original model. The Episodic Buffer integrates information from the slave systems and Long-Term Memory (LTM), creating unified episodes and supporting tasks like problem-solving and narrative comprehension.

The WMM provides a more detailed and dynamic explanation of STM than the MSM, highlighting how different types of information are processed simultaneously.

This version meets the requirements for a six-mark A-Level question by explaining the WMM’s components, addressing the addition of the Episodic Buffer, and contrasting it with the MSM for evaluation.

EVALUATION QUESTIONS

STUDENT ACTIVITY: RUN YOUR OWN DUAL-TASK EXPERIMENT

Instructions

Choose two tasks:
Pick one verbal task and one visual–spatial task.
Examples:
• Verbal: remember a short list of words, rehearse a phone number, spell words backwards
• Visual–spatial: track a moving shape on screen, draw a simple pattern from memory, count how many squares are shaded in a grid
Do each task on its own first:
Complete the verbal task by itself and record how well you perform.
Then complete the visual–spatial task by itself and record your performance.
Now perform both tasks at the same time:
Try to do the verbal task while doing the visual–spatial task.
Record how performance changes (speed / accuracy / how difficult it felt).
Swap your tasks with a partner:
Let them choose their own verbal and visual–spatial tasks.
Compare your results.

Questions for students to answer

Was your performance worse when you did two tasks at once?
Did the verbal task interfere with the visual–spatial one, or could you do both fairly well?
What does this suggest about how the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad work?

Extension (optional)
Repeat the experiment but use two verbal tasks at the same time (e.g., remembering digits while spelling words backwards).
Compare the difficulty with doing one verbal and one visual–spatial tas

ANSWERS

A complex algebra problem and learning a new dance simultaneously? It's unlikely. Both tasks demand significant attention, meaning the Central Executive must decide which task to focus on to avoid failing both.
Reciting a poem from memory while cycling? This might be manageable, as both tasks might not require excessive additional attention, allowing the Central Executive to distribute resources evenly.
Driving on a perilous mountain path while debating vigorously about climate change? Again, probably not. The complexity of both tasks means the Central Executive would have to prioritise, likely focusing more on driving to ensure safety.
Could a professional footballer execute a tackle while counting backwards in twos? In this case, the tasks could be managed with uneven attention. The physical task might not hamper the simple mental task of counting, suggesting the Central Executive can allocate resources differently based on task demands.

EXPLANATIONS FOR FORGETTING: Proactive and Retroactive Interference and Retrieval Failure due to the absence of cues.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE ACCURACY OF EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY: Misleading Information, including Leading Questions and Post-Event Discussion

FACTORS AFFECTING THE ACCURACY OF EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY: Anxiety.

IMPROVING THE ACCURACY OF EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY: The Cognitive Interview

MODELS OF MEMORY: THE MULTI-STORE MODEL OF MEMORY

POSSIBLE EXAM QUESTIONS FOR THE MULTI-STORE MEMORY MODEL INCLUDE:

Patient X: difficulty forming new long-term memories after a car accident, but intact short-term memory and intact memories from before the accident. Briefly explain how the experiences of Patient X could be interpreted as supporting the multi-store memory model. (2 marks)
What do you understand by the following terms:
(a) short-term memory
(b) long-term memory?
List three differences between STM and LTM.
According to Miller, how does ‘chunking’ increase the capacity of STM?
Identify two factors that affect the duration of STM.
Outline the procedures and findings of the Peterson and Peterson study of duration in STM.
What is the preferred method of encoding in
(a) STM
(b) LTM?
Outline the findings of the study by Bahrick et al. (1975) into very long-term memory. Identify one criticism of this study.
Outline the main features of the working memory model.
Outline findings of research investigating the levels-of-processing model.
To what extent does the multi-store model explain how memory works?
The multi-store model of memory has been criticised in many ways. The following example illustrates a possible criticism.
“Some students read their revision notes many times before an examination, but still find it challenging to remember the information. However, the same students can remember information from a celebrity magazine even though they read it only once.”
Explain why this can be used as a criticism of the multi-store model of memory. (3 marks)
Outline what psychological research has shown about short-term memory according to the multi-store memory model. (4 marks)
A researcher investigating the multi-store memory model tested short-term memory by having participants read aloud sequences of numbers, which they had to repeat immediately after presentation. The first sequence consisted of three numbers, for example, 8, 5, 2. Each participant was tested several times, and each time the sequence length was increased by adding another number.
Use your knowledge of the multi-store memory model to explain the purpose of this research and the likely outcome. (4 marks)
After the study was completed, the researcher decided to modify the test by using letter sequences rather than numbers. Suggest one 4-letter sequence and one 5-letter sequence that the researcher could use. For each sequence, give a different rationale. (4 marks)
Evaluate the use of case studies, such as that of Patient X, in psychological research. (5 marks)
Patient X: severe amnesia after accident, cannot form new long-term memories, short-term memory intact.
Outline the multi-store model of memory. (6 marks)
Outline and evaluate the multi-store memory model. (8 marks)
Evaluate the multi-store memory model. (10 marks)
Outline and evaluate the multi-store memory model. (16 marks A-level

MEMORY RESOURCES

MEMORY WEBSITES:

(Wikipedia): http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory (plus other links from there)
https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/memory/

How Human Memory Works (HowStuffWorks): http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/life/human-biology/human-memory.htm
How Amnesia Works (HowStuffWorks): http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/life/human-biology/amnesia.htm
Memory (Sceptic’s Dictionary): http://www.skepdic.com/memory.html
The Brain From Top To Bottom (McGill University): http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/
How Does Your Memory Work (BBC TV): http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pxVb6M8UPTQ
Memory–Structures and Functions (State University): http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2222/Memory-STRUCTURES-FUNCTIONS.html

FILMS:

Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004), Michel Gondry
Three Colors: Blue (1993), Krzysztof Kieślowski
Memento (2000), Christopher Nolan
FIFTY-FIRST DATES
The Father [2021]
Still Alice (2014)
Away From Her (2007)
The Savages (2007)
The Notebook (2004)
A Song for Martin (2001)
Age Old Friends (1989)
Firefly Dreams (2001)
Iris: A Memoir of Iris Murdoch (2001

Rebecca Sylvia

I am a Londoner with over 30 years of experience teaching psychology at A-Level, IB, and undergraduate levels. Throughout my career, I’ve taught in more than 40 establishments across the UK and internationally, including Spain, Lithuania, and Cyprus. My teaching has been consistently recognised for its high success rates, and I’ve also worked as a consultant in education, supporting institutions in delivering exceptional psychology programmes.

I’ve written various psychology materials and articles, focusing on making complex concepts accessible to students and educators. In addition to teaching, I’ve published peer-reviewed research in the field of eating disorders.

My career began after earning a degree in Psychology and a master’s in Cognitive Neuroscience. Over the years, I’ve combined my academic foundation with hands-on teaching and leadership roles, including serving as Head of Social Sciences.

Outside of my professional life, I have two children and enjoy a variety of interests, including skiing, hiking, playing backgammon, and podcasting. These pursuits keep me curious, active, and grounded—qualities I bring into my teaching and consultancy work. My personal and professional goals include inspiring curiosity about human behaviour, supporting educators, and helping students achieve their full potential.

https://psychstory.co.uk