PARASOCIAL RELTIONSHIPS
SPECIFICATION: PARASOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS: LEVELS OF PARASOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS, THE ABSORPTION-ADDICTION MODEL AND THE ATTACHMENT THEORY EXPLANATION
Parasocial relationships (PSRs) refer to one-sided emotional attachments between an individual and a media figure, such as a celebrity, fictional character, television presenter, or social media influencer. These connections are psychological and unreciprocated—the media figure is unaware of the individual’s existence, yet the individual experiences the relationship as meaningful, intimate, and often emotionally fulfilling.
Initially coined by Horton and Wohl (1956), the concept of parasocial interaction (PSI) described how audiences may feel as though they are engaging in a direct, face-to-face exchange with a media persona. Over time, repeated exposure to the same persona can deepen this sense of familiarity and evolve into a parasocial relationship, which includes emotional investment and cognitive identification.
EXAMPLES OF PARASOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS:
A viewer who feels emotionally connected to a character from a long-running television series.
A fan who follows a social media influencer’s daily life feels they “know” them personally.
An individual who becomes deeply invested in a celebrity or musician's personal life, struggles, and successes.
Young children interact with characters in children’s TV shows as if they are real-life friends.
These relationships are commonplace in the digital age, and they have become increasingly complex and immersive with the rise of social media platforms. These platforms allow fans to comment, like, message, and even receive replies from their admired figures, further blurring the boundary between mediated and real-life interaction.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN PSI AND PSR
It is crucial to differentiate between Parasocial Interaction (PSI) and Parasocial Relationship (PSR):
Parasocial Interaction (PSI) refers to a momentary, one-off engagement experience during media exposure—for example, feeling like a talk show host is speaking directly to you during a broadcast.
Parasocial Relationships (PSR) are long-term and enduring. They involve repeated exposure, emotional investment, and often cognitive elaboration (e.g., thinking about the figure in daily life or making life choices influenced by them).
According to Schmid & Klimmt (2011) and Dibble et al. (2016), PSI and PSR are progressive: initial interaction (PSI) may evolve into a relationship (PSR), but they should not be conflated. PSR includes a sense of commitment and emotional intimacy that extends beyond individual episodes of media use.
SOCIAL MEDIA AS A PARASOCIAL AMPLIFIER
In the digital age, social media has dramatically intensified parasocial relationships' scope and emotional power. Platforms like Instagram, YouTube, TikTok, and Twitch provide features that simulate two-way interaction (e.g., liking, commenting, direct messaging, and live streams). This fosters the illusion of reciprocity, making it feel as though media figures are accessible and responsive—even when they are engaging with millions.
Social media collapses traditional boundaries between public and private personas. Influencers and celebrities often share intimate details (e.g. family life, mental health struggles), enhancing the perceived authenticity of the relationship.
This illusion of mutual awareness can increase emotional vulnerability, loyalty, and even a sense of obligation toward the media persona.
Media users often experience emotions similar to those in real relationships—joy, pride, grief, jealousy, or betrayal—when media figures succeed, suffer setbacks, or make personal disclosures.
In effect, the architecture of social media—its algorithmic reinforcement, interactivity, and visual intimacy—functions as a PSR amplifier, strengthening emotional investment and making these relationships more vivid and pervasive than in traditional broadcast media
LEVELS OF PARASOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS (GILES & MALTBY, 2006)
The Celebrity Attitude Scale evaluates attitudes, behaviours, and emotional investment about a specific celebrity or media figure.
Using the Celebrity Attitude Scale, Giles and Maltby identified three progressively intense levels of parasocial engagement:
1. ENTERTAINMENT-SOCIAL
Celebrities are viewed as sources of entertainment and conversation.
Individuals enjoy discussing them with friends and keeping up with their work.
This level is relatively harmless and socially normative.
2. INTENSE-PERSONAL
The individual develops a more profound, emotionally driven connection.
They may feel a strong affinity with the celebrity, consider them a role model, and become highly preoccupied with their personal life (e.g. fashion choices, hobbies, values).
3. BORDERLINE-PATHOLOGICAL
The most extreme level involves obsessive behaviour and delusional thinking.
It may include fantasies of a personal relationship, compulsive spending on memorabilia, or even stalking.
Emotional dependence is severe, and behaviour may cross legal or ethical lines.
Example item: "If I met my favourite celebrity and they asked me to do something illegal, I probably would."
USEFULNESS AND LIMITATIONS
Research Tool: The CAS is widely used in psychological studies of parasocial relationships, especially those exploring links with self-esteem, body image, mental health, and attachment styles.
Clinical Relevance: High scores can help identify individuals at risk of developing maladaptive or obsessive behaviours toward celebrities.
Social Desirability Bias: As a self-report measure, it may be affected by individuals downplaying or exaggerating their celebrity worship.
Cultural Specificity: Some items may not be generalised well across cultures, where celebrity culture functions differently.
THEORIES
Parasocial Interaction Theory: Developed by Horton and Wohl in 1956, this theory suggests that audiences develop parasocial relationships with media figures through repeated exposure and the illusion of intimacy created by media content.
Absorption-Addiction Model: This model proposes that individuals with unmet social needs may become more absorbed in parasocial relationships, sometimes leading to addiction-like behaviours towards media figures.
ABSORPTION-ADDICTION MODEL (McCutcheon, 2002)
The Absorption-Addiction Model, proposed by McCutcheon et al. (2002), offers a psychological explanation for parasocial relationships (PSRs), especially those that become intense or obsessive. According to the model, individuals form PSRs in response to deficiencies in their personal lives—such as identity disturbance, low self-esteem, or a lack of meaningful social connections. The parasocial bond offers a compensatory emotional outlet, enabling escape, enhancement of self-worth, or a sense of purpose.
ABSORPTION
Absorption is the early stage in which an individual becomes mentally and emotionally preoccupied with a celebrity. This stage mirrors the infatuation phase of romantic relationships and may involve:
Idealised thinking about the celebrity’s qualities
Seeking out media appearances, interviews, or personal details
Escapism from personal difficulties through fantasy involvement
A distorted perception of proximity or connection
Absorption is often driven by the desire to establish a stronger identity or fill an emotional void.
ADDICTION
As the psychological investment intensifies, the individual may transition into an addiction-like phase. This stage is marked by:
Escalating efforts to feel close to the celebrity
Delusional beliefs, such as the illusion of reciprocity
Extreme behaviours like cyberstalking, collecting memorabilia, or excessive spending
Compulsivity in following the celebrity’s life and a perceived ‘need’ for the relationship
The relationship becomes central to the individual’s emotional regulation, and behaviours may become maladaptive or socially isolating.
EVALUATION OF THE ABSORPTION-ADDICTION MODEL
SUPPORTING RESEARCH
Maltby et al. (2005) surveyed adolescents. They found that teenage girls who admired celebrities for their appearance—and scored highly on the “intense-personal” dimension of the Celebrity Attitude Scale—tended to report poorer body image. This supports the idea that deficiencies (in this case, low self-esteem) drive parasocial involvement, consistent with the absorption phase of the model.
CORRELATIONAL LIMITATIONS
Although studies such as Maltby’s demonstrate statistically significant relationships, they are correlational. Therefore, causation cannot be inferred. It is unclear whether poor body image leads to parasocial involvement or whether intense involvement undermines body image through upward social comparison.
ALTERNATIVE EXPLANATIONS
Kienlen et al. (1997) found that a high proportion of individuals who engaged in stalking behaviour—a possible extreme of PSR—had experienced early attachment disruptions, including bereavement or abuse. This supports an attachment-based explanation, suggesting that parasocial intensity may stem from unresolved early trauma rather than present-day deficiencies alone.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Understanding parasocial engagement to cope with psychological distress provides useful implications for therapy, media literacy, and support services. For instance, clinicians working with socially anxious clients might use the stability of PSRs as a bridge toward developing healthier social skills or self-concept.
DETERMINISM AND STIGMATISATION
While the model uses the language of ‘addiction’, not all intense parasocial engagement is dysfunctional. Some individuals may derive motivation, inspiration, or comfort from such attachments. Labelling such behaviours as inherently pathological may stigmatise fans and overlook the adaptive, identity-affirming role these relationships can play.
GENDER BIAS AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Wang, Fink, and Cai (2008) found that men and women experience parasocial relationships differently: men’s involvement is often linked to chronic loneliness, whereas women tend to be influenced by familial or romantic isolation. The Absorption-Addiction Model has been criticised for applying a beta-biased framework, assuming a universal process without accounting for gendered patterns of emotional experience and relational motivation.
ATTACHMENT THEORY EXPLANATION OF PARASOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS
The attachment theory explanation draws on Bowlby’s (1969) concept of the internal working model, which suggests that early interactions with primary caregivers shape expectations for future relationships. According to this view, individuals who experience inconsistent or unresponsive caregiving are more likely to develop insecure attachment styles, which can persist into adulthood and affect interpersonal functioning, including the formation of parasocial relationships (PSRs).
ATTACHMENT STYLES AND PSR FORMATION
Insecure-resistant individuals, characterised by anxiety, fear of abandonment, and hypervigilance to relational cues, may be particularly prone to forming PSRs. These relationships are perceived as emotionally safe because they lack the threat of rejection or abandonment: the media persona is always available, predictable, and non-confrontational. As such, PSRs may offer compensatory security, satisfying unmet relational needs in a controlled, non-reciprocal context.
In contrast, individuals with insecure-avoidant attachment styles, who typically suppress emotional needs and avoid closeness, may be less likely to form intense PSRs. However, exceptions may occur when the PSR allows vicarious intimacy without emotional risk. Securely attached individuals may also form PSRs, which are likely less intense and may function more as entertainment or admiration than compensation.
EVALUATION OF THE ATTACHMENT THEORY EXPLANATION
SUPPORTING RESEARCH
Cole and Leets (1999) found that adolescents with insecure-resistant attachment styles were significantly more likely to report intense emotional involvement with television figures. This supports the notion that parasocial bonds serve a regulatory or compensatory function for individuals with anxious relational patterns.
Kienlen et al. (1997) found that a majority of individuals who engaged in obsessive stalking behaviour had experienced significant childhood trauma, including loss of attachment figures or abuse. This suggests a link between early relational disturbance and pathological forms of parasociality.
CONFLICTING EVIDENCE
McCutcheon et al. (2006) conducted a study with 229 participants and found no significant correlation between attachment style and the intensity of celebrity worship. This undermines the claim that insecure attachment is a universal precursor to parasocial engagement and suggests that other psychological variables—such as identity issues, low self-esteem, or media exposure—may play a more prominent role.
METHODOLOGICAL CRITIQUES
Most studies in this area rely on self-report measures, such as questionnaires or interviews, to assess attachment style and PSR involvement. These are subject to retrospective bias, social desirability effects, and subjective misinterpretation. Furthermore, correlational data cannot establish causation, and findings are often context-dependent (e.g. age, media platform, genre).
HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVES
While attachment-based accounts often emphasise deficiency and dysfunction, a more humanistic interpretation might view parasocial relationships as adaptive coping strategies. In emotionally unstable or isolated environments, PSRs can offer continuity, predictability, and self-affirmation. Rather than pathologising such attachments, they might be understood as reflective of human relational flexibility and resilience.
DETERMINISM AND LACK OF PLASTICITY
Attachment theory assumes a relatively fixed developmental trajectory based on early life experiences. This view has been criticised for being overly deterministic and neglecting the potential for later relational growth, therapeutic intervention, or environmental change. Individuals may learn to form healthier relationships over time, meaning early attachment styles are not necessarily destiny.
GENERAL EVALUATION OF PARASOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS
PREDICTIVE VALIDITY AND REAL-WORLD APPLICATION
Parasocial relationships (PSRs) extend beyond theoretical constructs, influencing real-world behaviours. Research indicates that PSRs predict consumer behaviour, media engagement, political allegiance, and brand loyalty. This is particularly evident in influencer culture and political branding, where fans feel connected to public figures and are more inclined to support their ventures, vote for them, or purchase endorsed products (Sokolova & Kefi, 2020).
CROSS-CULTURAL UNIVERSALITY
Schmid and Klimmt (2011) discovered comparable levels of parasocial involvement with Harry Potter characters in both Germany (an individualist culture) and Mexico (a collectivist one). This cross-cultural consistency suggests that PSRs may be underpinned by universal psychological processes related to attachment, identity formation, or social cognition.
DEVELOPMENTAL RELEVANCE AND LEARNING BENEFITS
PSRs have been found to support learning and emotional development in children. Rosaen and Dibble (2008) demonstrated that children form stronger PSRs with more realistic characters, and the strength of these relationships correlates positively with educational outcomes. In early childhood, parasocial interactions can foster identity development, especially when children identify with characters who model prosocial behaviour or share similar characteristics (Hoffner, 2007).
COMPENSATORY SOCIAL FUNCTION
There is substantial evidence that PSRs serve as social substitutes during periods of isolation or emotional deprivation. For instance, during the COVID-19 pandemic, many individuals experienced reduced face-to-face interactions and reported stronger parasocial attachments as a coping strategy (Bond, 2018; Cohen, 2004). This supports the parasocial compensation hypothesis, suggesting that PSRs provide emotional comfort when real-life social options are limited.
COGNITIVE CONTINUITY WITH REAL RELATIONSHIPS
Giles (2002) posited that parasocial interactions tap into ordinary social-cognitive mechanisms, including theory of mind, emotional contagion, and reciprocity heuristics, typically employed in face-to-face interactions. Thus, parasocial interaction is not a deviant form of relating but an extension of normal social cognition, particularly when media personas simulate real human qualities (e.g., eye contact, disclosure, humour).
LACK OF EXPERIMENTAL RIGOUR
Much of the research in this area is correlational and based on self-report measures. For example, Maltby's use of the Celebrity Attitude Scale or Rubin's PSI scale provides insight into the strength of PSRs but does not establish causality. As Dibble et al. (2016) noted, these scales may conflate admiration or character liking with genuine psychological investment, thereby limiting measurement validity.
COMMERCIAL AND POLITICAL IMPLICATIONS
PSRs significantly influence consumer trust and product engagement. Research by Sokolova and Kefi (2020) found that PSRs formed with influencers on social media had a more substantial impact on purchasing decisions than traditional measures like credibility.
In politics, media exposure helps cultivate parasocial bonds that can influence voting behaviour. For instance, Donald Trump’s previous visibility on The Apprentice enabled him to form pre-existing PSRs with viewers, which increased support during his presidential campaign. Politicians now deliberately foster intimacy via social media to mimic the emotional closeness of PSRs.
PARASOCIAL BREAKUPS
Research by Eyal and Cohen (2006) found that parasocial breakups—such as the cancellation of a show or the death of a character—can cause emotional distress similar to real-life breakups, particularly among younger viewers and individuals high in parasocial involvement. These effects suggest that PSRs may carry real emotional weight, even without reciprocity.
REDUCTIONISM
Some theories, such as the Absorption-Addiction model, reduce PSRs to functions of psychological deficiency (e.g., loneliness, poor self-image). While this may explain certain cases, it neglects broader social, technological, and cultural factors. It also overlooks individual agency and the variety of motivations (e.g., identity exploration, social entertainment, political engagement) that can lead to PSR formation.
DETERMINISM AND PATHOLOGISATION
Describing high levels of celebrity worship as “borderline pathological” (e.g., Giles & Maltby, 2006) risks social sensitivity. This characterisation can stigmatise individuals who may use PSRs to cope with emotional needs or trauma. A more humanistic perspective would emphasise the adaptive and sometimes therapeutic roles of these relationships, particularly for individuals with social anxiety or those navigating identity crises.
TEMPORAL VALIDITY CONCERNS
Much foundational research in this area predates the rise of interactive social media platforms like TikTok, Instagram, and Twitch. These platforms blur the line between traditional media personas and accessible figures interacting with audiences via comments and live streams. Older models, such as the Absorption-Addiction Model, may require updating to account for reciprocal engagement and “digital intimacy” now present in many online parasocial bonds.
GENDER AND DEVELOPMENTAL VARIATION
Attachment-based explanations may not account for gender differences or developmental stages. For instance, Cohen (2004) found that individuals with anxious (insecure-resistant) attachment styles experienced greater emotional distress following a parasocial breakup, particularly among adolescents and young adults. Hoffner (2007) noted that girls are more likely to form PSRs with attractive media figures, while boys tend to favour athletic role models—highlighting potential influences of gendered socialisation.
PSRs ARE CROSS-CULTURAL: Schmid & Klimmt (2011) found comparable levels of parasocial engagement with Harry Potter characters in both Germany (individualist) and Mexico (collectivist), suggesting PSRs may be culturally universal.
DISTINCTION VALIDITY: Dibble et al. (2016) warn that some parasocial measures conflate PSI and PSR. They argue that PSRs are enduring and involve emotional attachment, while PSIs are transient and contextual.
PREDICTIVE POWER: Parasocial attachment can influence consumer behaviour, brand loyalty, and even voting decisions (Sokolova & Kefi, 2020).
SOCIAL MEDIA INFLUENCE: The illusion of intimacy is intensified online. The more a media persona self-discloses (e.g. “behind the scenes” posts, personal struggles), the stronger the parasocial bond becomes.
ROLE OF COVID-19: The pandemic blurred boundaries between parasocial and real interactions. Studies showed PSRs increased as people experienced less face-to-face interaction (supporting the compensation hypothesis)
CONCLUSION
Parasocial relationships are psychologically meaningful and socially embedded phenomena that extend traditional models of interpersonal relationships into the mediated realm. They may be compensatory, aspirational, emotionally stabilising, or identity-shaping. While existing theories offer useful frameworks (e.g., Attachment Theory, Absorption-Addiction Model), they must be continually revised to reflect evolving technologies, social norms, and diverse user experiences.
From YouTube vloggers to political figures, media personas now offer the illusion—and sometimes the performance—of genuine intimacy. The study of PSRs, therefore, is not merely a media curiosity but a window into modern social psychology, emotional development, and the digitisation of human connection.
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