BRAIN PLASTICITY AND FUNCTIONAL RECOVERY: REVISION BOOKLET

AQA PSYCHOLOGY – PAPER 2: BIOPSYCHOLOGY SECTION

PART ONE: REVISION QUESTIONS (KNOWLEDGE CHECK)

(These questions are designed to check your understanding of brain plasticity and functional recovery, and prepare you for exam questions.)

MULTIPLE CHOICE:

1. What is brain plasticity?
   A) The ability of the brain to remain the same over time
   B) The brain's ability to change and adapt due to experience and injury
   C) The brain's ability to grow larger over time
   D) The brain's ability to develop only in childhood

1. Name three types of brain plasticity.
   A) Experience-expectant, experience-dependent, and functional recovery
   B) Axonal sprouting, synaptic pruning, and hormonal change
   C) Critical period, synaptogenesis, and dendritic branching
   D) None of the above

1. Why is the brain plastic?
   A) To allow it to shrink after trauma
   B) To enable it to adapt to experience, injury, and environmental change
   C) To keep neural circuits inactive
   D) To hardwire learning before birth

1. Which part of the brain is plastic?
   A) Cerebellum
   B) Cerebrum
   C) Midbrain
   D) Cerebral cortex

1. Which of the following is not a mechanism of functional recovery after trauma?
   A) Axonal sprouting
   B) Recruitment of homologous areas
   C) Homogeneous replacement
   D) Neural unmasking

1. Which best describes 'neuronal unmasking'?
   A) The loss of neurons after trauma
   B) The activation of dormant neural connections
   C) The regrowth of blood vessels
   D) The pruning of unused synapses

1. What happens during axonal sprouting?
   A) New blood vessels are formed
   B) New nerve endings grow to connect with undamaged areas
   C) Dormant neurons are pruned away
   D) Neurons shrink to prevent damage

1. Which statement about brain plasticity is correct?
   A) It only occurs in childhood
   B) It stops after adolescence
   C) It continues throughout life but is more limited in adulthood
   D) It is impossible after injury

QUESTIONS ON A01, A02, A03 AND EXAM SKILLS:

1. How many marks are typically awarded for AO1 (knowledge) in a 16-mark essay question on brain plasticity?
   A) 4
   B) 6
   C) 8
   D) 10

1. How many marks are typically awarded for AO2 (application) in a 16-mark brain plasticity question?
   A) 2
   B) 4
   C) 6
   D) 8

1. Why is AO2 worth four marks in the brain plasticity essay questions?
   A) There is only a small amount of application in the question
   B) There are two different application points (usually two characters or scenarios)
   C) The application is less detailed than the theoretical description and evaluation
   D) All of the above

1. When should you describe research studies (APFC) in a plasticity essay?
   A) In AO1 (Knowledge and Description)
   B) In AO2 (Application)
   C) In AO3 (Evaluation)
   D) Nowhere, it is not needed

1. Where should you evaluate research studies in a plasticity essay?
   A) In AO1
   B) In AO2
   C) In AO3

1. Which aspect of functional recovery involves dormant synapses becoming active?
   A) Axonal sprouting
   B) Neuronal unmasking
   C) Synaptic pruning
   D) Dendritic branching

1. Which structural change helps reroute the blood supply to damaged areas?
   A) Recruitment of homologous areas
   B) Reformation of blood vessels
   C) Synaptic reorganisation
   D) Axonal growth

1. Which is a real-world application of research into brain plasticity and recovery?
   A) Video games increase cortical thickness
   B) Early intervention after brain injury
   C) Meditation strengthens the prefrontal cortex
   D) All of the above

SHORT ANSWER

1. Define brain plasticity. ( 2 marks)

2. Name two ways the brain can recover function after damage. (4 marks)

3. Why might a young brain recover faster from trauma than an older brain? ( 4 marks)

4. Give one reason why brain recovery is not always complete after injury. (4 marks)

5. Suggest two research studies you might use to show that recovery from brain injury is possible; no APFC, just FC. (4 marks)

EXTENDED THINKING

1. Why might recovery differ depending on where the injury occurs in the brain?

2. Why is education (cognitive reserve) important for functional recovery after trauma?

3. What is one real-world application of plasticity research (other than therapy after trauma)?

4. Why is understanding brain plasticity important for rehabilitation and intervention strategies?

END OF KNOWLEDGE CHECK

REVISION NOTES

WHAT IS BRAIN PLASTICITY?
Brain plasticity (neuroplasticity) is the brain’s ability to change and adapt to experience, learning, and trauma. It involves forming new neural connections and reorganising existing pathways.

TYPES OF PLASTICITY:

• Experience-Expectant Plasticity (early development)

• Experience-Dependent Plasticity (lifelong learning)

• Functional Recovery of the Brain after Trauma

MECHANISMS OF PLASTICITY AND RECOVERY:

• Synaptogenesis: Creation of new synapses.

• Neuronal Unmasking: Activation of dormant synapses when neighbouring areas are damaged.

• Axonal Sprouting: Growth of new nerve endings to reconnect neurons.

• Reformation of Blood Vessels: Supporting recovery by restoring oxygen and nutrients.

• Recruitment of Homologous Areas: The Opposite brain hemisphere compensates for lost function.

KEY STUDIES TO SUPPORT PLASTICITY:

• Maguire et al. (2000) – Taxi drivers, hippocampus volume increases with spatial navigation demands.

• Elbert et al. (2001) – Plasticity is more significant in children.

• Schneider et al. (2014) – Cognitive reserve improves recovery outcomes.

• Hubel and Wiesel (1963) – Visual cortex and critical periods.

• Danelli et al. (2013) – Case study of EB, reorganisation after left hemisphere removal.

FACTORS AFFECTING RECOVERY:

• Age: Younger brains are more plastic.

• Education Level: Higher education increases cognitive reserve.

• Extent of Damage: More severe trauma limits recovery.

• Lifestyle: Factors like alcohol consumption, stress, and physical fitness.

INTRODUCTION: UNDERSTANDING THE FOCUS

The AQA specification for Biopsychology requires students to understand brain plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma.
So far, most exam questions have focused heavily on functional recovery rather than general plasticity, though both are in the specification.

Recent questions have included an application element (AO2), which can confuse students. These questions are typically split:

• AO1 (Description) = 6 marks

• AO2 (Application) = 4 marks

• AO3 (Evaluation) = 6 marks

AO2 is only 4 marks because you are expected to apply to two elements in the question stem (e.g., two people, two statements).
It is not enough to regurgitate theory—you must actively link to what the person said or did.

The examiners' reports show that students are often strong in AO1 knowledge but struggle with AO2 application, particularly linking research clearly to the scenario.

QUICK MARK SCHEME REMINDER FOR STUDENTS:

AO2 Skill: What to do. Link the idea of brain plasticity and functional recovery clearly to Josie’s young age. Mention at least two proper recovery mechanisms (e.g., axonal sprouting, neuronal unmasking, and recruitment of homologous areas). Focus on application (Josie’s case) — not just describing theory. Use specialist terms correctly and coherently

FULL PAST EXAM QUESTIONS

QUESTION 1
Xavier was cycling to school when he fell off his bike onto the road. A teacher saw a car swerve, narrowly missing Xavier. The teacher checked Xavier's safety and asked him what had happened.
Xavier was not wearing a helmet. The teacher told him how lucky he was not to have suffered brain damage. She told him about a man who had been cycling without a helmet. He had fallen off his bicycle and found it challenging to produce speech.
Xavier laughed and said, “I am young. If I had an accident, my brain would recover on its own and get me back to normal.”

Discuss research into plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma. Refer to the views of the teacher and Xavier in your answer.
(16 marks)

MARK SCHEME – QUESTION 1

• AO1 = six marks

• AO2 = four marks

• AO3 = six marks

Possible AO1 content:

• Brain plasticity is the brain’s ability to change and adapt due to experience.

• Functional recovery is when brain areas compensate for damaged areas by adapting.

• Neuronal unmasking (activating dormant synapses).

• Axonal sprouting, reformation of blood vessels, denervation supersensitivity, and recruitment of homologous areas.

• Processes like synaptogenesis.

Possible AO2 application:

• Research supports Xavier’s belief: younger brains show more remarkable plasticity (Elbert et al., 2001).

• However, recovery is not automatic — it depends on the extent of damage and intervention.

• The teacher’s point is valid: recovery is not guaranteed (e.g., a man who now struggles with speech).

• Broca’s area could have been damaged, explaining the difficulty with speech.

Possible AO3 discussion:

• Evidence from case studies, e.g., EB (Danelli et al., 2013).

• Animal studies (Hubel and Wiesel, 1963) — critical periods.

• Factors influencing recovery: education (Schneider et al., 2014), cognitive reserve, age, gender, lifestyle.

• Practical applications: physiotherapy, cognitive rehabilitation.

EXAMINER'S COMMENTARY ON QUESTION 1:

• Most students showed good recall of the material.

• Application (AO2) was weaker — many repeated the question stem without integrating theory.

• Common mistakes included writing about the localisation of function without linking back to plasticity.

• Maguire’s taxi driver study is often used, but better linked to adult plasticity, countering Xavier’s assumption.

• Sophisticated answers discussed not just what happened but why recovery might be partial or complete

QUESTION 2:

Josie is twelve. Last year, she was involved in a serious road accident and suffered head injuries that caused problems with speech and understanding language. A year later, Josie has recovered most of her language abilities.
Explain Josie's recovery using your knowledge of plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma. (4 marks)

EXEMPLAR FULL-MARK ANSWER (Version 1 – Detailed AO2)

Because Josie is young, her brain has greater plasticity than that of adults. After her injury, undamaged brain areas could reorganise and take over the functions previously controlled by damaged areas (neural reorganisation). Specific processes, such as axonal sprouting (growth of new nerve endings) and neuronal unmasking (activation of dormant synapses), helped rebuild communication pathways in her brain. As a result, Josie’s language skills were gradually restored through natural functional recovery processes and regular use of language in her environment.

✅ This would be marked at 4/4: precise, detailed, two mechanisms named and applied.

EXEMPLAR FULL-MARK ANSWER (Version 2 – Focus on Process)

Brain plasticity and functional recovery explain Josie's recovery. Due to her young age, her brain could reorganise itself more easily after trauma. Neural mechanisms such as axonal sprouting, where new nerve endings form new connections, and the recruitment of homologous areas from the opposite hemisphere may have compensated for damaged language areas. Josie’s speech and language understanding improved through these adaptations, showing the brain’s ability to recover following injury.

✅ Also 4/4: two mechanisms + clear developmental application.

EXEMPLAR FULL-MARK ANSWER (Version 3 – Focus on Plasticity and Use)

At twelve years old, Josie’s brain had a high degree of plasticity, allowing functional recovery after her head injury. Damage to language areas would have triggered dormant synapses to become active (neuronal unmasking) and new connections to form (axonal sprouting). Everyday speech use likely strengthened these new pathways, helping Josie recover most of her language skills within a year.

✅ Again 4/4: fits AQA Level 2 descriptor.

Reminder – Xavier Question Placeholder:

▶ XAVIER SCENARIO ANSWER (TO BE ATTACHED SEPARATELY BY YOU)

EXEMPLAR 16-MARK ESSAY

DISCUSS RESEARCH INTO PLASTICITY AND FUNCTIONAL RECOVERY OF THE BRAIN AFTER TRAUMA. REFER TO THE VIEWS OF THE TEACHER AND XAVIER IN YOUR ANSWER.

AO1 (6 Marks) — Knowledge

Brain plasticity refers to the brain's ability to adapt and change throughout life, reorganising itself by forming new neural connections. This plasticity is significantly pronounced in childhood but continues to some degree into adulthood.
Functional recovery after trauma is a specific type of plasticity, where the brain compensates for damage by reassigning functions to undamaged areas.
Mechanisms involved in functional recovery include neuronal unmasking, where dormant synaptic connections are activated; axonal sprouting, where surviving neurons grow new connections; recruitment of homologous areas in the opposite hemisphere to take over lost functions; and the reformation of blood vessels to support new neural growth.
Plasticity allows the brain to respond to injury, new experiences, and learning throughout life.

AO2 (4 Marks) — Application to Scenario

Xavier’s view that his young brain would recover naturally is partially supported by research showing that younger brains exhibit greater plasticity. For instance, Elbert et al. (2001) found that younger individuals display a higher capacity for neural reorganisation after trauma than adults.
However, the teacher is also correct: recovery is not guaranteed. The case of the man who lost the ability to speak suggests damage to Broca’s area, a critical language region. Even with plasticity, severe or extensive damage may mean that some functions, such as fluent speech, cannot be fully restored without significant therapy or may not recover.
Therefore, while Xavier's optimism about his age is somewhat justified, recovery outcomes are influenced by multiple factors, including the severity, location of injury, and external rehabilitation efforts.

AO3 (6 Marks) — Evaluation and Research

There is considerable research evidence supporting brain plasticity and functional recovery. Schneider et al. (2014) found that individuals with higher levels of education — a proxy for "cognitive reserve" — were more likely to make a full recovery after brain trauma. This suggests that not only age, but also cognitive enrichment, plays a critical role in recovery outcomes.
Similarly, Maguire et al. (2000) demonstrated plasticity in adult London taxi drivers, who showed structural changes in the posterior hippocampus associated with extensive navigational experience, providing strong support for the brain's ability to change beyond childhood.
Animal studies also offer insights: Hubel and Wiesel (1963) showed that sensory deprivation in kittens led to permanent visual impairments if not corrected within a critical period. Although caution must be taken when generalising from animal studies to humans, this research highlights that timing is crucial for plasticity.
Furthermore, real-world applications such as physiotherapy and cognitive rehabilitation techniques are based on enhancing plasticity to aid recovery, demonstrating the practical importance of this field.
In conclusion, while Xavier’s youth gives him an advantage in potential recovery, the teacher's caution is also well-founded, as full recovery is dependent on numerous biological and environmental factors.

FINAL STRUCTURE CHECKLIST:

SectionWhat It IncludesHow It Matches MarksAO1Definitions, mechanisms, clear theory6 marksAO2Application to Xavier and teacher views4 marksAO3Research support, evaluation, conclusion6 marks