SCHAFFER: STAGES OF ATTACHMENT

SCHAFFER STAGES OF ATTACHMENT DEVELOPMENT

SPECIFICATION: STAGES OF ATTACHMENT AS IDENTIFIED BY SCHAFFER

STAGES OF ATTACHMENT

Expanding upon the seminal work of John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth on attachment theory, John Schaffer, in collaboration with Peggy Emerson, introduced a nuanced perspective on the developmental process of attachment in infants. Their pioneering study, conducted in Glasgow in the early 1960s, meticulously observed the behaviour of infants within their familial settings to discern patterns and stages in the formation of attachments. This groundbreaking research culminated in what is now known as "Schaffer's Stages of Attachment," a model outlining infants' sequential emotional and social development as they establish bonds with their primary caregivers.

The Glasgow study was instrumental in bridging theoretical concepts with empirical evidence, illustrating the dynamic nature of attachment development from birth. By systematically documenting the interactions between infants and their caregivers, Schaffer and Emerson identified distinct phases in the evolving relationship, providing a foundational framework for understanding the timing and progression of attachment formation. This work validated the core tenets of Bowlby's attachment theory. It extended our comprehension of the subtleties of the infant-caregiver bond, highlighting the importance of reciprocal interactions and the infant's growing social awareness.

RESEARCH STUDY: THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL ATTACHMENTS IN INFANCY BY SCHAFFER AND EMERSON (1964)

AIMS:

This landmark study, carried out in the early 1960s in Glasgow, Scotland, focused on observing how infants develop attachments, particularly the sequence and timing of attachment formation.

PROCEDURES OF THE GLASGOW STUDY

PARTICIPANTS

• The study involved 60 infants from working-class families in Glasgow.

• These infants were longitudinally observed from as young as five weeks up to one year of age.

METHODOLOGY

• Data Collection: The mothers of the infants were interviewed at four-week intervals to gather consistent and detailed records of their development over their first year.

• The focus of Interviews: Mothers provided detailed accounts of their infants' reactions to separation in various daily situations.

• Measurement of Separation Anxiety: The intensity of the infants' separation anxiety was quantified using a 4-point scale, offering a measurable approach to assess the emotional distress experienced by the infants when separated from their caregivers.

KEY FINDINGS

The data identified four stages of attachment development, each marked by specific behaviours and emotional responses towards attachment figures.

It was observed that:

• ASOCIAL STAGE (Birth to 8 WEEKS): During this initial stage, Infants respond similarly to animate and inanimate objects and people and cannot differentiate between them. Towards the end of this period, infants start showing preferences for human-like stimuli, particularly faces and eyes. They also begin to distinguish between voices and scents. Reciprocity and interactional synchrony, essential aspects of attachment, emerge in their interactions with others.

• INDISCRIMINATE ATTACHMENT (2 Months to 6 Months): Infants become more sociable in this stage, which spans from 2 to 6 months of age. They develop the ability to differentiate between people and show a preference for those who provide comfort and care. Importantly, they do not exhibit stranger anxiety and are generally content in the presence of different individuals.

• SPECIFIC ATTACHMENT (7 Months-9 Months): Infants manifest separation anxiety from their primary attachment figure from approximately seven months onwards. They also display stranger anxiety, showing distress in the presence of unfamiliar individuals. Reunion with the primary caregiver elicits a sense of relief and joy, affirming the emergence of a specific attachment to this person. Notably, the attachment bond is not solely determined by the time spent together but by the caregiver's sensitivity to the child's needs.

• MULTIPLE ATTACHMENTS ( 9-12 Months and Beyond (2 years): In the final stage, which typically starts around ten months and extends into later years, infants develop multiple attachments. After forming their primary attachment, infants can form emotional bonds with other significant figures in their social circle, including siblings, the other parent, grandparents, and caregivers in nursery settings. By this stage, they may have multiple secondary attachment figures. Schaffer and Emerson's research indicates that 78% of infants have multiple attachments by six months and almost all by one year.

IMPACT

• Contribution to Attachment Theory: This study significantly contributed to the field of attachment theory by providing empirical evidence for the stages of attachment development and emphasising the role of caregiver sensitivity in attachment formation.

• Influence on Subsequent Research: Schaffer and Emerson's work established a foundation for future longitudinal studies in developmental psychology, influencing a wide range of research on attachment, caregiving, and early child development.

EVALUATION OF SCHAFFER AND EMERSON STAGE THEORY

Schaffer's 4-Stage Model of Attachment: Schaffer's 4-stage model of attachment provides a framework for understanding how infants progressively form emotional bonds with their primary caregivers:

THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS:

Schaffer's stage model of attachment implies that attachment development progresses through distinct stages, occurring in a specific order and within particular developmental timeframes. This model suggests that the unfolding of attachment stages is biologically and pre-determined, framing the attachment process as a series of universal steps every infant follows as it grows.

Implications of the Stage Model: By positing that attachment develops sequentially at predetermined times, the stage model implies that these processes are innate and hardwired into human development. For instance, it suggests that there is a biological basis for when an infant begins to show preference for familiar people over strangers or when they start to experience separation anxiety. This perspective aligns with the idea that certain developmental milestones in attachment are triggered by biological maturation.

However, Schaffer and Emerson's seminal work on the stages of attachment has been subject to substantial scrutiny. Critics have pointed out several methodological flaws in their longitudinal study, including researcher bias, subjective reporting by mothers, and the theory's limited cultural applicability.

RESEARCHER BIAS: Researcher bias could manifest in how infants' interactions with their caregivers are interpreted. If researchers are predisposed to find evidence of distinct stages of attachment, they might more readily categorise ambiguous behaviours as indicative of these stages.

SMALL SAMPLE SIZE AND LACK OF DIVERSITY: The study's findings, based on a small cohort from working-class backgrounds in Glasgow, raise questions about their applicability across different socio-economic, cultural, and ethnic groups.

SUBJECTIVE REPORTING BY MOTHERS:

The methodology, which heavily depended on mothers' accounts of their infants' behaviours, is subject to several biases that could compromise the data's integrity. Social Desirability Bias may lead parents to report behaviours they perceive as socially acceptable or expected rather than those accurately reflecting their infants' actions. Similarly, Demand Characteristics could influence parents to respond in ways they believe align with the researchers' hypotheses. This reliance on subjective accounts inherently lacks objectivity, potentially skewing the data towards the parents' perceptions and expectations.

• Additionally, the observation period by the researchers was notably brief, consisting of just 12 visits, raising concerns about the depth and accuracy of the data collected. This limited exposure to the infants and their interactions with caregivers might not have provided a comprehensive view of the attachment process. For instance, without a more extended observation period, researchers could not reliably discern an infant's temperament, such as distinguishing between a quiet demeanour and indifference or identifying issues like colic that might affect the infant's behaviour. Such nuances are critical for understanding the nature of attachment and the infant's responses to different situations. These factors, combined with subjective interpretations of infant behaviour based on limited observations, cast doubt on the study's conclusions regarding attachment formation.

• Mary Ainsworth later introduced a more objective method to measure the quality of attachments through the "Strange Situation" procedure, offering a structured way to observe infants' reactions to separations and reunions with their caregivers, thereby addressing some of the limitations of relying solely on parental reports for assessing attachment quality.

LIMITED CULTURAL APPLICABILITY: The study's generalisability is questioned due to its cultural specificity. For instance, in many cultures where child-rearing is a communal effort, the concept of a singular primary attachment figure does not align with local caregiving practices. This variance challenges the universality of the attachment stages proposed by Schaffer and Emerson, underscoring the model's cultural limitations.

TEMPORAL CHANGES: Family dynamics, parenting practices, and societal norms have evolved considerably since the 1960s. The rise of dual-income households, the prevalence of external childcare, and the ubiquitous presence of digital technology in the lives of young children represent significant shifts. These changes have broadened the range of individuals with whom children can form attachments, moving beyond the traditional caregiver-child dyad to daycare staff, educators, and extended family members. Integrating technology into daily life from a young age may also shape attachment behaviours, potentially affecting how children interact with their caregivers and peers.

OVER-EMPHASIS ON ATTACHMENT TO PRIMARY CAREGIVER

Schaffer and Emerson's theory notably emphasises attachment to a primary caregiver, typically the mother. This focus may not fully capture the complexity of a child's social interactions, potentially overlooking the benefits of multiple attachments. Relationships with fathers, grandparents, siblings, and childcare providers can offer distinct emotional support and learning opportunities, enriching the child's development.

NEGLECT OF THE INFANT’S AGENCY

The theory has been criticised for underestimating infants' active roles in developing attachment relationships, portraying them as passive recipients rather than active participants. This view neglects the infants' behaviours that influence caregiver responses, such as social smiling and crying, which are crucial for the dynamic formation of attachment bonds.

Despite these methodological concerns, the fundamental question remains: Does the theory, particularly the delineation of four stages of attachment, retain its validity? In other words, is attachment driven my maturity and delivered in stages?

THE THEORY STANDS, BUT THE RESEARCH DOESN’T

Despite the critiques of Schaffer and Emerson's methodology, their proposed foundational theory of attachment stages has garnered support from various research avenues and theoretical developments within developmental psychology. This backing validates the stages' essence and integrates them into a broader understanding of attachment as a complex, multifaceted developmental phenomenon.

MARY AINSWORTH'S STRANGE SITUATION

Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation procedure empirically supports distinct attachment patterns, resonating with the progression Schaffer and Emerson outlined. Her work, identifying secure, avoidant, and ambivalent attachment styles, underscores the developmental trajectory of attachment behaviours from indiscriminate affections to clear-cut attachments.

LONGITUDINAL STUDIES ON ATTACHMENT SECURITY

Further longitudinal research underscores the impact of early attachment patterns on later social and emotional development, echoing Schaffer and Emerson's stage theory. These studies highlight the enduring influence of initial attachment quality on various developmental outcomes.

CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH

While highlighting variations in caregiving practice, cross-cultural studies affirm attachment's universality across societies. For instance, Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg's research shows consistent attachment behaviours despite cultural differences, supporting the stages' conceptual foundation.

NEUROSCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE

Advancements in neuroscience provide a biological basis for attachment stages, with brain imaging studies illustrating how early experiences affect brain development areas related to emotion regulation and social cognition. This biological perspective offers a foundational understanding for progressing through attachment stages.

DEVELOPMENTAL AND COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

Investigations into cognitive milestones like object permanence and social referencing align with Schaffer and Emerson's attachment stages. These cognitive developments correlate with emerging attachment behaviours, providing a cognitive framework for understanding attachment progression.

STAGE-DRIVEN ATTACHMENT: Advancements in neuroscience have illuminated the complex relationship between brain development and attachment. While certain neurodevelopmental milestones align with Schaffer and Emerson's stages, neuroscientific findings suggest that biological, environmental, and experiential factors influence attachment development. This evidence suggests that the process of attachment formation may be more fluid and less uniformly timed across individuals than the stage model implies, suggesting a complex interplay between these influences.

1. Biological Factors: Brain imaging studies have shown that some brain regions involved in emotion regulation, social processing, and stress response are directly influenced by attachment experiences. For example, the quality of early attachment can affect the development of the amygdala and prefrontal cortex, areas critical for emotional regulation and social interaction.

2. Environmental Factors: The environment in which a child grows plays a crucial role in shaping attachment patterns. Neuroscientific research has highlighted how variations in caregiving quality and consistency can lead to differences in brain structure and function related to attachment and stress management.

3. Experiential Factors: Individual experiences, including trauma, consistent caregiving, and social interactions, contribute to the neural pathways that underlie attachment behaviours. Secure attachment experiences have been associated with more robust neural circuit development that facilitates positive social interactions and resilience to stress.

These findings imply that attachment development cannot be strictly categorised into neatly defined stages that occur uniformly across all children. Instead, the timing and nature of attachment formation are influenced by a dynamic combination of innate predispositions, the caregiving environment, and individual life experiences. This nuanced understanding underscores the importance of considering each child's unique context in studies of attachment and in interventions aimed at supporting healthy developmental outcomes.

Despite the critiques directed at the Glaswegian research study conducted by Schaffer and Emerson, the underlying theory of attachment stages remains relatively robust. The delineation of the stages—pre-attachment, attachment-in-the-making, clear-cut attachment, and the formation of reciprocal relationships—consistently appears across various societies. While there is some variance in how these stages manifest, there are no documented instances of infants bypassing stages entirely, such as being born with an understanding of object permanence. This observation underscores the universality of the stages despite cultural differences in caregiving practices.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BOWLBY’S STAGES OF ATTACHMENT AND SCHAFFER & EMERSON’S STAGES OF ATTACHMENT DEVELOPMENT

Both Bowlby (1969) also proposed theories on how attachment develops in infants, but their focus, approach, and conclusions differ.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

• Bowlby’s attachment theory is rooted in evolutionary psychology, arguing that attachment is an innate survival mechanism that keeps infants close to caregivers.

• Schaffer & Emerson’s Stages of Attachment are based on empirical, observational research, focusing on how infants develop attachment over time through real-world interactions.

BOWLBY’S STAGES OF ATTACHMENT (1969)

Bowlby proposed four stages of attachment development, emphasizing the role of a primary caregiver and the importance of the critical period (first 2.5 years of life):

1. Pre-attachment (0–6 weeks) – Infants show no preference for a specific caregiver but engage in social behaviours like crying and smiling to attract attention.

2. Attachment-in-the-making (6 weeks – 6 months) – Infants prefer familiar caregivers and are more easily comforted by them.

3. Clear-cut attachment (6 months – 2 years) – Infants form a strong attachment to one primary caregiver and exhibit separation anxiety when apart from them.

4. Formation of reciprocal relationships (2+ years) – Children understand that caregivers will return as cognitive development advances, reducing separation anxiety and leading to more stable attachments.

🔹 Key Feature: Bowlby argued that monotropy (one special attachment, usually the mother) is the foundation for future relationships.

EVALUATION OF BOTH STAGE THEORIES

STRENGTHS OF BOWLBY'S THEORY

Explains why attachment is essential for survival from an evolutionary perspective.
This is supported by Harlow’s (1958) monkey study, which showed that infants prefer comfort over food.
Led to real-world applications in hospital policies (e.g., rooming-in for newborns).

CRITICISM

• Overemphasises monotropy despite evidence that multiple attachments are common.

• Rutter (1981) argued Bowlby confused deprivation (loss of attachment) with privation (never forming attachment in the first place).

STRENGTHS OF SCHAFFER & EMERSON'S THEORY

Based on real-life observations rather than theoretical assumptions.
Showed infants form multiple attachments, which aligns with collectivist cultures where caregiving is shared.
Supports modern parenting, recognizing the role of fathers and other caregivers.

CRITICISM

• The sample was only working-class families from Glasgow, limiting generalisability.

• The self-report method relied on mothers’ reports, which may introduce social desirability bias.

CONCLUSION

Bowlby’s theory provides a biological explanation for attachment, emphasizing monotropy and the critical period. In contrast, Schaffer & Emerson offer a developmental approach, showing that attachment is gradual, flexible, and involves multiple caregivers. While Bowlby’s theory influenced childcare policies, Schaffer & Emerson’s findings better reflect modern parenting and cultural differences.

In conclusion, Shaffer’s stage model provides a foundational framework for understanding the developmental trajectory of attachment. They illuminate the progressive evolution of attachment behaviours from infancy to early childhood, offering valuable insights into how secure and meaningful relationships between caregivers and infants develop over time. This framework not only aids in academic and clinical understanding but also provides practical guidance for caregivers in fostering secure attachments with their children.

SUMMARY OF A01 AND A03: SCHAFFER’S STAGES OF ATTACHMENT

A01 SUMMARY (KNOWLEDGE & DESCRIPTION)

Schaffer and Emerson (1964) proposed a four-stage model of attachment development based on their longitudinal study of 60 infants in Glasgow. Their research identified a sequence of attachment formation, highlighting how infants develop social bonds with caregivers over time.

• Asocial Stage (Birth to 8 weeks) – Infants respond similarly to both people and objects but begin to show preferences for faces, voices, and human interaction towards the end of this stage. Early signs of reciprocity and interactional synchrony emerge.

• Indiscriminate Attachment (2 to 6 months) – Infants become more sociable, clearly preferring human interaction and responding more positively to familiar people. However, they do not yet show stranger anxiety or separation distress.

• Specific Attachment (7 to 9 months) – Infants form a primary attachment to a particular caregiver, usually the one who is most sensitive to their needs rather than the one who spends the most time with them. They develop separation anxiety when apart from this figure and stranger anxiety when faced with unfamiliar people.

• Multiple Attachments (9 months and beyond): Infants form secondary attachments to other important figures, such as fathers, grandparents, and siblings. By one year, most infants have several attachments rather than just one exclusive bond.

This model supports the idea that attachment is a gradual and sequential process influenced by the caregiver's responsiveness to the infant's needs.

A03 SUMMARY (EVALUATION & CRITIQUE)

• STRENGTHS

  • Empirical Support – The study provided some of the first longitudinal data on attachment development, showing that attachment is not immediate but develops over time.

  • Real-World Application – Understanding that multiple attachments form beyond the mother has influenced modern childcare, supporting the role of fathers and other caregivers.

  • Challenges Bowlby’s Monotropy Hypothesis—The findings suggest that infants can form multiple attachments, contradicting Bowlby’s claim that a single primary attachment is most important.

• LIMITATIONS

  • Researcher Bias: Observations and interviews relied on mothers’ reports, which may have been influenced by social desirability bias, making the findings less objective.

  • Limited Sample and Cultural Bias – The study was based on 60 working-class families in Glasgow, reducing its generalisability to other socio-economic and cultural groups. In collectivist cultures, infants often form multiple attachments earlier due to shared caregiving practices.

  • Lack of Experimental Control—The observational study cannot establish cause and effect. Other factors, such as infant temperament, may have influenced attachment development.

  • Temporal Validity Issues – The research was conducted in the 1960s when mothers were the primary caregivers. Modern childcare structures, such as working mothers and daycare, may mean attachment formation follows different patterns today.

  • Overemphasis on a Fixed Sequence—The model suggests that attachment develops in a predictable order, but some infants skip or overlap stages, questioning the framework's strict biological basis.

Overall, Schaffer’s stages of attachment remain a valuable framework for understanding early social development, but its methodological flaws, cultural limitations, and outdated context mean it should not be applied universally.

ASSESSMENT

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. According to Schaffer and Emerson, which stage of attachment is characterised by separation anxiety towards one specific caregiver?
   a) Asocial stage
   b) Indiscriminate attachment
   c) Specific attachment
   d) Multiple attachments

2. What method did Schaffer and Emerson use to assess infants' attachments?
   a) The Strange Situation procedure
   b) PET scans to monitor brain activity
   c) Interviews with mothers and direct observations at regular intervals
   d) Controlled laboratory experiments measuring infant distress

3. What does research on parentese suggest?
   a) It is culturally specific and only used in Western societies
   b) It plays a role in early language development and infant-caregiver bonding
   c) It has no impact on infant communication or attention
   d) It is only used by mothers, not fathers or other caregivers

4. Which of the following is a criticism of Schaffer and Emerson’s research?
   a) It had a large, diverse sample across different cultures
   b) The study relied on subjective reports from mothers
   c) It used brain imaging to assess infant attachment
   d) The findings were based entirely on laboratory experiments

ODD ONE-OUT QUESTIONS

1. Identify the odd one out from the following, based on Schaffer’s stages of attachment:
   a) Specific attachment
   b) Multiple attachments
   c) Asocial stage
   d) Secure attachment

2. Which of the following does not describe interactional synchrony?
   a) Caregiver and infant mirror each other’s facial expressions and movements
   b) The interaction happens in real-time rather than in a turn-taking manner
   c) The infant and caregiver engage in a back-and-forth response cycle
   d) Synchrony is believed to strengthen emotional bonds and communication skills

3. Which is the odd one out, based on research methods used in attachment studies?
   a) Longitudinal study
   b) Self-report interviews
   c) Functional MRI scans
   d) Controlled observation

4. Identify the odd one out in terms of criticisms of Schaffer and Emerson’s study:
   a) Researcher bias
   b) Small, working-class sample
   c) Lack of a primary attachment figure
   d) Subjective reporting by mothers

5. Identify the odd one out in terms of features of early attachment:
   a) Reciprocity
   b) Interactional synchrony
   c) Parentese
   d) Stranger anxiety

WRITTEN QUESTIONS

1. Name three stages in developing attachments identified by Schaffer (3 MARKS).

2. Define reciprocity in the context of infant-caregiver interactions. (1 mark)

3. What is interactional synchrony? (1 mark)

4. Outline one difference between reciprocity and interactional synchrony. (2 marks)

5. Identify and briefly describe one attachment stage as Schaffer and Emerson proposed (1964). (2 marks)

6. Explain how Schaffer and Emerson measured attachment in their Glasgow study. (3 marks)

7. Describe two key findings from Schaffer and Emerson’s research on attachment development. (4 marks)

8. Explain why Schaffer and Emerson’s study lacks cultural applicability. (4 marks)

9. Describe and evaluate the use of observational methods in research on reciprocity and interactional synchrony. (6 marks)

10. Outline and evaluate Schaffer and Emerson’s stages of attachment. (6 marks)

11. Discuss the strengths and limitations of Schaffer and Emerson’s research on the stages of attachment. (8 marks)

12. Outline and evaluate the stages of attachment identified by Schaffer and Emerson (12 marks AS, 16 marks A-level).