EARLY EXPERIENCE ON ADULT RELATIONSHIPS
Specification: The influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships, including the role of an internal working model.
THE INFLUENCE OF EARLY ATTACHMENT ON CHILDHOOD AND ADULT RELATIONSHIPS, INCLUDING THE ROLE OF AN INTERNAL WORKING MODEL
THE INFLUENCE OF EARLY ATTACHMENT ON CHILDHOOD AND ADULT RELATIONSHIPS, INCLUDING THE ROLE OF AN INTERNAL WORKING MODEL
BACKGROUND TO BOWLBY’S ATTACHMENT THEORY AND CONTINUITY HYPOTHESIS
Attachment theory is primarily a psychodynamic theory. For example, Bowlby observed that there was a direct link between the pathology of a Mother and disturbances in the child. Like many psychodynamic theories, attachment theory also has evolutionary principles. For example, Bowlby thought that the inability to form successful relationships would affect an individual’s life chances, as they would be less likely to reproduce, and even if they did, relationship difficulties would affect not only their survival but also the quality and health of any offspring they had. This is demonstrated by Bowlby’s belief that attachment experiences had long-lasting effects (the continuity hypothesis) that tended to persist across the lifespan.
AO1: BOWLBY’S ATTACHMENT THEORY AND CONTINUITY INTO ADULT RELATIONSHIPS
.Many Psychologists believe that the quality and pattern of adult relationships are related to the quality of childhood care. This theory is based on John Bowlby’s attachment theory.
The core elements of Bowlby’s theory are that infants become attached to individuals who are sensitive and responsive in their social interactions and who remain consistent caregivers during a critical period in their development (from birth to two and a half years of age). This is known as the continuity hypothesis, i.e., that childhood experiences continue into adulthood.
Bowlby (1973) proposed that when a child is confident that an attachment figure is available, he is less prone to fear and more likely to trust others. Moreover, suppose the attachment figure is responsive and protective, while also respecting the need to grow and explore the environment. In that case, the infant will develop positive perceptions, emotions, and expectations that will enable them to succeed in later relationships, as they will view others the same way their caregiver treats them. So they will approach people with trust and optimism. Bowlby believed this early parental care formed the prototype for future relationships by developing a healthy internal working model (a kind self-schema) that views itself as loving, deserving and dependable. Bowlby said that when we form our primary attachment, we also mentally represent what a relationship is (an internal working model), which we then use for all other relationships in the future, i.e., friendships, working and romantic relationships.
However, suppose the caregiver/parent rejects or ignores calls for comfort and attention and prohibits exploratory activity. In that case, the infant is more likely to construct an internal working model of himself as unworthy and ineffectual (John Bowlby, 1969).
HAZAN AND SHAVER LOVE QUIZ AND ADULT ATTACHMENT TYPES
Bowlby’s research focused primarily on poor attachment and delinquency. Cindy Hazan and Phillip Shaver extended attachment theory research on adult romantic relationships in the late 1980s. Four attachment styles were identified in adults: secure, anxious-preoccupied, dismissive-avoidant and fearful-avoidant. These roughly correspond to infant classifications: secure, insecure-ambivalent, insecure-avoidant and disorganised/disoriented.
HAZAN AND SHAVER LOVE QUIZ EVIDENCE AND RELATIONSHIP SATISFACTION
Hazan and Shaver's hypothesis is supported by their research, which used a love quiz to show correlations between attachment style and relationship satisfaction.
Hazan and Shaver’s study did have some strengths: a large sample and significant replication results. However….
LIMITATIONS OF RETROSPECTIVE ATTACHMENT CLASSIFICATION AND INFANTILE AMNESIA
In Hazan and Shaver’s study, participants had to classify their attachment style by retrospectively analysing their childhood experiences. It is doubtful that individuals could remember their early attachment experiences, as childhood amnesia, also called infantile amnesia, is the inability of adults to retrieve episodic memories before the age of 2–4 years. For the first 1–2 years of life, brain structures such as the limbic system, which holds the hippocampus and the amygdala and is involved in memory storage, are not yet fully developed. This means that participants in the study would have relied on their parental recollections of their infancy or made it up!
This is a sensitive area, and many parents would want to appear socially desirable and present themselves as wonderful caregivers. Again, caution must be applied to the results and interpretation of how childhood affects relationships, as the classification validity was methodologically unsound.
SAMPLING BIAS AND CULTURAL LIMITATIONS IN HAZAN AND SHAVER
The sampling process in Hazan and Shaver’s study has external validity issues: not only did it recruit Canadian individuals, but it was also culturally biased, and participants were self-selecting. Maybe only a specific type of individual would read the Rocky Mountain News, and perhaps only a particular kind of Rocky Mountain News reader would respond to the socially sensitive subject of childhood attachment, e.g., a reflective, empathetic type. This means we can only apply the theory to a small sample of people. Volunteer sampling is a poor way to select participants, as it does not provide a cross-section of the public. Using this sampling technique, for example, you will get people with an ‘axe to grind’ or extremes of experience or opinion.
EVIDENCE FOR AND AGAINST THE CONTINUITY HYPOTHESIS
Another weakness of this theory is that the evidence is mixed. For example, some studies appear to support continuity and provide evidence for internal working models. For instance, Bailey et al. (2007) concluded that mothers' early attachment styles are passed on to their children and future generations, raising the possibility that attachment styles and parenting skills run in families.
Moreover, longitudinal studies such as those by Simpson and Sroufe show that securely attached children have more successful relationships.
Other well-known examples of supporting research in this area are McCarthy’s (1999) correlational study on women who had experienced insecure attachments as children. She found that this correlated with relationship problems.
However, Zimmerman (2000) assessed infant attachment type and adolescent attachment to parents. The findings indicated a minimal relationship between infant and adolescent attachment quality. This is a problem because this outcome is not what would be expected if the internal working models were important in development.
LIMITATIONS OF CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH AND CAUSAL INFERENCE IN ATTACHMENT STUDIES
Much of the research on the influence of childhood on relationships is non-experimental, mostly in the form of correlational questionnaires; case studies are also common. This is because there would be too many variables to control in experimental research, and doing so would also be unethical. Instead of using experiments, researchers rely on less valid and reliable methods, such as questionnaires and interviews.
We must carefully apply causal inference in non-experimental research because non-experimental researchers cannot demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships. Therefore, caution must be exercised in attributing childhood attachment to adult romantic relationships, as other variables have not been controlled for.
For example, a severe limitation of the continuity hypothesis is its failure to recognise the profound influences of social class, gender, ethnicity, and culture on personality development. These factors, independent of a mother's sensitivity, can be as significant as the quality of the early attachment.
SOCIAL CLASS, TEMPERAMENT AND ALTERNATIVE EXPLANATIONS OF ATTACHMENT
Research has demonstrated that social and economic factors have a powerful influence on development. The strongest predictor of adult depression or anxiety in many cultures is growing up in a disadvantaged social class. For example, Mississippi has a more significant proportion of minority residents living in poverty than North Dakota, and the incidence of depression in Mississippi is three times that of North Dakota, according to the Centres for Disease Control.
Therefore, Simpson and Sroufe's results may also be related to social and economic factors. Or, as Kagan hypothesised, babies may be born with innate social and unsocial temperaments that shape the quality of a caregiver's parenting style. So, difficult babies cause insecure parenting (because they are grumpy), which is not the other way around, as most commonly inferred.
OTHER FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO RELATIONSHIP BREAKDOWN
Other variables may cause poor relationships. Marital and relationship dysfunction is not rare in Western society. 40% of marriages end, and one could assume a proportion of intact marriages are unhappy. Indeed, childhood experiences are not solely to blame. Modern living is very stressful, and illness, loss of attraction, and a lack of rewards, for example, may be contributory.
VALIDITY ISSUES WITH THE STRANGE SITUATION AS A MEASURE OF ATTACHMENT
The trouble with all the research listed above is that it relies on the strange situation (SS) as the tool for measuring attachment. This tool is not without criticisms. Many psychologists believe that the peculiar situation is not a scientifically valid way to measure attachment, as the validity of some of Ainsworth’s techniques and categories was questionable. She didn’t include disorganised attachment, and she operationalised resistance very poorly. It changed meaning when interpreted by Japanese researchers, and many psychologists are unsure if resistant parenting is confusing or clingy.
Therefore, we cannot assume that the study participants who underwent the Strange Situation had valid assessments of their attachment type. This means that Simpson and Sroufe's findings cannot conclusively support the idea that early attachment style leads to, for example, fear of intimacy in close relationships. Fear of intimacy in close relationships could be down to autism, high testosterone, or other factors not connected to upbringing.
CULTURAL BIAS AND ETHNOCENTRISM IN THE CONTINUITY HYPOTHESIS
The relationship-continuity hypothesis is culturally biased as it assumes that people in all cultures are free to have short-term relationships or divorce their spouses. Most of the world has arranged marriages, with low divorce rates. According to this theory, this would mean that collectivist countries have more securely attached children. It could also mean that whether to leave or stay in an arranged marriage has little to do with relationship satisfaction and childhood experience, and more with the values and customs of collectivist cultures, e.g., prioritising your family over your individualistic desires. This means that this theory is ethnocentric and low in ecological validity.
GENDER DIFFERENCES, TESTOSTERONE AND AVOIDANT ATTACHMENT
This theory is biased because it does not distinguish between male and female experiences of relationships. The fact that there may be essential gender differences is supported by the fact that more males are classified as avoidantly attached than females. Avoidant attachment types are very similar to men with extremely high testosterone levels, which might explain why more males fall into this category. e.g., extremely independent, self-directed, and often uncomfortable with intimacy. They are also commitment-phobes and experts at rationalising their way out of intimate situations. There are many similarities between avoidantly attached individuals and alpha males. This suggests that attachment style may be influenced by gender and thus nature, not their caregivers' attachment style.
GENDER BIAS AND EVOLUTIONARY EXPLANATIONS OF RELATIONSHIPS
Yet, one could argue that being classified as avoidantly attached would have more repercussions for females. According to evolutionary theory, females need males to invest resources in them to secure their survival and that of their offspring. This may be less likely to happen if a female is avoidantly attached, as her emotional distance may cause relationship difficulties in intimacy and sex. However, males who are emotionally cold and distant would not be prevented from spreading their genes, which, according to evolutionary theory, is their purpose. This point also contradicts the idea that attachment theory has continuity, as it has more continuity or repercussions for females. Attachment theory has evolutionary principles, so gender issues are not discussed.
DETERMINISM IN ATTACHMENT THEORY AND LIMITS OF PREDICTION
This deterministic theory suggests that individuals with poor attachment experiences cannot form successful relationships. This is quite depressing, as it means people will fail at connecting with others.
SOCIALLY SENSITIVE RESEARCH AND CRITICISMS OF MATERNAL BLAME
This theory is harmful as it blames parents. However, Bowlby and others stressed that primary caregivers other than the Mother were important. Critics have still labelled this theory as misogynistic, as ultimately, Mothers are the primary caregivers and are the ones who feel the burden of blame for having an insecurely attached child. Some feminists have criticised attachment theory as being a sexist attack on working mothers. However, Bowlby felt that Mothering was the most critical role of our species and felt he elevated the role of primary caregiver rather than derided it.
APPLICATIONS OF ATTACHMENT THEORY TO CHILDCARE POLICY AND INTERVENTION
This theory has many real-life applications for social policy. It has massive implications for the current government guidelines on childcare ratios in nurseries. It also has the potential to help vulnerable parents bond with their babies, which has long-term benefits for society.
CRITIQUE OF ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT MONOGAMY AND RELATIONSHIP SUCCESS
This theory assumes that relationship longevity in romantic relationships and belief in “true love” are the norms. This is exemplified in Fennel and Noller’s research, which found that securely attached people had the most long-term relationships and avoidant-attached types had the most short-lived, least intense relationships. Also, Hazan and Shaver asked participants questions about whether they believed love was forever. Surely marriage and assumed monogamy are social constructions; in other words, things that exist not in objective reality, but as a result of human interaction and culture? Ideas about soul mates and marriage exist because humans agree they exist.
Yet, statistics on relationship duration and divorce in the West would suggest that relationship longevity is not the norm, so vast numbers of people are now insecurely attached, or norms surrounding relationships are changing. This means that the assumption that short-term relationships may be linked to an insecure childhood is wrong. It may just be that people are more willing to experiment with other types of relationships: e.g., polygamy, singletons, living apart and flings.
The abovementioned ideas suggest that the central idea in Hazan and Shaver’s theory may be wrong. For example, people do not have to believe in “true love” to have successful relationships; what about evolutionary psychologists or scientists?
Moreover, according to evolutionary theory, monogamy was not the standard in our ancestral environments. They see physical attraction (what is known as romantic love) as finite, lasting at most two years. This “love window” supposedly allows the female to ensure she gets protected and fed whilst she is pregnant and physically encumbered by her immobile baby for two years, until it toddles basically. Her hands are free, and she can regain some independence to forage. The father can then spread his abundant seed elsewhere (charming!). The father will probably still look after this female and child, but not so intensely or devotedly. Their romantic love might be replaced with companionate love, as most long-term relationships are. It is thought that early humans were polygamous. In any case, after two years, the love chemicals: dopamine, adrenaline and oxytocin have diminished, and partners may become less physically attracted to each other and more likely to cheat, end the relationship or be unhappy.
Evolutionary and biological psychologists do not believe longevity is the norm for many animal species. Although many animals seem to engage in long-term relationships, they also engage in infidelity, illegitimate offspring, and even infanticide. Research suggests that humans are often no different. This means that Hazan and Shaver may be wrong in assuming that monogamy is a valid way to test relationship success.
It could be that Hazan, Shaver, and similar researchers are measuring the wrong relationship dynamics, and undoubtedly, some of the ideas in Bowlby’s original theory are irrefutable. For example, Rutter showed that privation had long-lasting effects on social relationships if adoption was later than the sixth month. And since then, FMRIS have shown how abuse can be hard-wired into the brain in a form of negative plasticity if it takes place during a critical period. So, it seems reasonable to suggest that poor early care might affect the ability to relate later in life.
It could be that it is not your ability to live in a long-term relationship or your belief in “true love” that matters. Some Psychologists think that a better measure of early attachment dynamics might be to look at the security of the self about an attachment rather than a belief about what love is or how long it lasts, i.e. the general state of mind regarding attachment; how much empathy and respect you display in key relationships with parents, children, relatives, friends and associates? Whether you put up with abusive relationships or provoke abuse? This means that some of Bowlby's ideas may have been inaccurately tested.
NATURE VS NURTURE AND NEUROBIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF EARLY CARE
Despite this theory’s evolutionary principles, it focuses mainly on nurture or psychodynamic principles, e.g., how early experience causes harm. Current research, e.g., Sue Gerhardt, investigates how nurture affects nature. In other words, how the environment can change the architecture of your brain. For example, why love and sensitive parenting are essential to brain development in the early years of life, especially in creating vital neural connections and a well-developed prefrontal cortex, and how early abuse can become hard-wired into the brain.
For example, when a baby is upset, the hypothalamus produces cortisol in the subcortex at the brain's centre. In normal amounts, cortisol is fine, but if a baby is exposed to stressful situations for too long or too often (such as being left to cry), its brain becomes flooded with cortisol, and it will either over- or under-produce cortisol whenever the child is exposed to stress. Too much is linked to depression and fearfulness; too little to emotional detachment and aggression. Children of alcoholics have a raised cortisol level, as do children of very stressed mothers.
These findings support the theory that quality of care can affect relationships, not because of an internal working model, but because early care can affect brain development and lead to lifelong changes in brain chemistry and structure.
INTERNAL WORKING MODEL AS A SCHEMA FOR FUTURE RELATIONSHIPS
This section focuses on Bowlby’s idea of an ‘internal working model‘, also known as a ‘schema‘. A good way to understand schemas is to think of them as a template we create to help us understand how things work.
Your early experiences of attachment formed between you and your caregiver (usually a parent), form a template (schema) for how you will go on to judge what other future relationships with other people.
This particular section focuses on how childhood and adult relationships are affected by this internal working model so we need to prepare for three possible questions, which are:
Explain Bowlby’s Internal Working Model
Explain how the Internal working model affects childhood relationships
Explain how this internal working model affects adult relationships
BIOLOGICAL CHALLENGE TO ATTACHMENT THEORY (TEMPERAMENT AND TESTOSTERONE)
The fact that there may be essential gender differences is supported by the fact that more males are classified as avoidantly attached. Avoidant attachment types are extremely independent, self-directed, and often uncomfortable with intimacy. They are commitment-phobes and experts at rationalising their way out of any intimate situation. Men are more likely than women to be avoidant types. There are many similarities between avoidantly attached individuals and alpha males, which leaves this theory in a bit of a pickle, as, according to ET, females are thought to be better off with an alpha male. Some could argue that testosterone may contribute to avoidant attachment, which might explain why more males fall into this category. This suggests that attachment style may be nature, not nurture, as caregivers are not more inclined to like girls’ babies. This means attachment style could be biological, and the theory is wrong.
Despite this theory’s evolutionary principles, its focus is mainly on nurture. Yet current research, e.g., Sue Gerhardt, investigates how nurture affects nature. For example, love and sensitive parenting are essential to brain development in the early years of life, especially in creating vital neural connections and a well-developed prefrontal cortex.
More importantly, though, is the hormone cortisol. When a baby is upset, the hypothalamus produces cortisol in the subcortex at the brain's centre. In normal amounts, cortisol is fine, but if a baby is exposed to stressful situations for too long or too often (such as being left to cry), its brain becomes flooded with cortisol, and it will either over- or under-produce cortisol whenever the child is exposed to stress. Too much is linked to depression and fearfulness; too little to emotional detachment and aggression. Children of alcoholics have a raised cortisol level, as do children of mothers who are under a lot of stress.
These findings support the theory that quality of care can affect relationships, but not because of an internal working model, but because early care can affect brain development and lead to lifelong changes in the brain's chemistry and structure.
DETERMINISM AND PLASTICITY IN ATTACHMENT OUTCOMES
This theory is deterministic; it suggests that individuals who have had poor attachment experiences cannot form successful relationships. This is untrue, as research has shown that people can overcome adversity. This means the theory needs to incorporate other approaches. Indeed, individual differences in genes may be contributory. Some individuals may have inherited less Serotonin, making them more difficult babies and more challenging to bond with.
At least this theory does not blame the individual for personality problems. However, if individuals believe their fate is inevitable, they may not try to change their insecure attachments, making relationship difficulties lifelong.
SOCIALLY SENSITIVE RESEARCH AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS OF ATTACHMENT THEORY
This theory is harmful as it blames parents, although Bowlby and others stressed the primary caregiver rather than the Mother. Critics have still labelled this theory as misogynistic, as ultimately, Mothers are the primary caregivers and are the ones who feel the burden of blame for having an insecurely attached child. This theory has many real-life applications for social policy. It has massive implications for the current government guidelines on childcare ratios in nurseries
THE INFLUENCE OF EARLY ATTACHMENT ESSAY EXEMPLAR
The concept of early attachment is central to understanding how individuals form and maintain relationships across the lifespan. A key idea within this area is Bowlby’s notion of the internal working model (IWM), which can be understood as a cognitive schema or “template” developed through early interactions with a primary caregiver. This template guides expectations about relationships, shaping how individuals perceive themselves and others. The specification focuses on how early attachment influences both childhood and adult relationships, and therefore, this essay will examine the role of the internal working model across these domains, alongside relevant research evidence and evaluation.
Research into early attachment and its effects has focused on Bowlby’s concept of the internal working model, which is closely linked to the continuity hypothesis. This hypothesis posits a consistency between early attachment experiences and later relationships in both childhood and adulthood. Bowlby argued that infants have an innate tendency to form a primary attachment with one caregiver, typically the mother, who is most responsive to their needs. This attachment is considered unique and forms the basis for future relational expectations. The internal working model develops from these early interactions and creates a framework for understanding how relationships function. It also contributes to the child’s sense of self, influencing whether they view themselves as worthy of love and others as trustworthy. This model is then used to predict and guide behaviour in later peer and romantic relationships.
In childhood, attachment theory predicts that securely attached individuals, whose internal working model is based on consistent and sensitive caregiving, will display greater confidence and competence in social interactions. Research supports this claim. Studies by Wippman (1979), Willie (1986), and Lieberman (1977) found that securely attached children tend to form closer friendships and demonstrate greater emotional and social competence into adolescence. Hartup et al. (1993) further suggested that securely attached children engage more frequently in social interactions, increasing their popularity among peers. In contrast, children with insecure attachment styles often struggle socially. Fleeson et al. (1986) found that such children are more reliant on teachers for emotional support rather than peers. Longitudinal evidence from Alpern et al. (1993) showed that attachment type at 18 months was a strong predictor of relationship difficulties at age five, indicating continuity between early attachment and later social functioning. Similarly, Belsky et al. (1992) found that securely attached children aged three to five were more curious, competent, and self-confident, and more likely to form positive peer relationships. These findings suggest a clear association between early attachment security and successful social development in childhood.
The influence of early attachment also extends into adult relationships. Evidence from animal studies, such as Harlow’s research with rhesus monkeys, demonstrates that poor early attachment can result in difficulties in later parenting behaviour. Supporting this, Quinton et al. (1984) found that women who had been raised in institutional care, and therefore lacked stable early attachments, were more likely to experience difficulties as parents themselves. This suggests that the absence of a secure internal working model limits an individual’s ability to form effective caregiving relationships.
Hazan and Shaver (1987) provided direct evidence linking early attachment to adult romantic relationships. They conducted a study using a “love quiz” published in a newspaper, where participants selected descriptions that matched their romantic attachment style and reported on their childhood relationships. The results showed a strong correspondence between adult attachment styles and those reported from childhood. Approximately 56 per cent of participants were classified as secure, 25 per cent as avoidant, and 19 per cent as resistant. Secure individuals reported trusting, enduring relationships, while avoidant individuals were sceptical about love, and resistant individuals expressed insecurity and fear of abandonment. These findings support the idea that early attachment experiences, via the internal working model, influence later romantic behaviour.
However, the evidence linking early attachment to later relationships is not without limitations. A major issue is that much of the research is correlational. As a result, it is not possible to establish cause and effect. While early attachment and later relationship patterns may be associated, other variables could account for this association. For example, innate temperament may influence both how a child behaves and how a caregiver responds, thereby shaping attachment style independently of caregiving quality. This challenges the assumption that attachment is solely determined by early experience.
Another limitation concerns the use of retrospective data, particularly in studies such as Hazan and Shaver’s. Participants are required to recall early childhood experiences, which may be inaccurate due to memory distortion or bias. This reduces the reliability of the findings and weakens conclusions about the influence of early attachment. In contrast, longitudinal studies provide stronger evidence. For example, Simpson et al. (2007) found that securely attached infants were more socially competent and emotionally expressive in adolescence, supporting the continuity hypothesis.
The theory has also been criticised for being overly deterministic. It suggests that early attachment experiences fix future relationship outcomes, implying that individuals with insecure attachments are destined for poor relationships. However, research indicates that this is not necessarily the case. Simpson et al. (2007) concluded that later experiences can modify early attachment patterns, meaning that development is not fixed.
Alternative explanations further challenge the centrality of the internal working model. Wood et al. (2003) argued that relationship quality depends on the interaction between both partners’ attachment styles. For example, an insecure individual may develop more secure patterns within a stable relationship with a securely attached partner. This suggests that attachment is dynamic rather than fixed.
There is also evidence that directly questions the strength of the continuity hypothesis. Steele et al. (1998) found only a weak correlation of 0.17 between early attachment and adult attachment. Similarly, Zimmerman (2000) found that attachment in infancy did not strongly predict later relationship quality, with life events such as parental divorce being more significant predictors. Hamilton (1994) also showed that securely attached children could later become insecure following adverse experiences. These findings suggest that later environmental influences can override early attachment patterns, weakening the explanatory power of the internal working model.
In conclusion, early attachment appears to play an important role in shaping both childhood and adult relationships by developing an internal working model. Research supports continuity between early attachment and later social functioning. However, the evidence is largely correlational, often relies on retrospective data, and may overstate the stability of attachment across the lifespan. Alternative explanations, such as temperament and later-life experiences, suggest that attachment is more flexible and influenced by multiple factors. Therefore, while the internal working model offers a useful framework, it should be considered as part of a broader, interactionist understanding of development rather than a fixed determinant of relationship outcomes..
