EDEXCEL MEMORY

7 Jan

MEMORY SPECIFICATION

TOPIC 2: COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

TOPIC OVERVIEW

Students must understand that cognitive psychology focuses on the role of cognition and cognitive processes in human behaviour. These processes include perception, memory, selective attention, language, and problem-solving. The cognitive approach draws on the analogy of cognitive processing to computer processing.

Individual differences and developmental psychology must be considered when learning about memory differences, memory deficits, and how memory develops as the brain ages.

2.1 CONTENT

What students need to learn:

Memory

2.1.1 The Working Memory Model (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974).
2.1.2 The Multi-Store Model of Memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968), including Short-Term Memory (STM)and Long-Term Memory (LTM), and ideas about information processing, encoding, storage, retrieval, capacity, and duration.
2.1.3 Explanation of Long-Term Memory – Episodic and Semantic Memory (Tulving, 1972).
2.1.4 Reconstructive Memory (Bartlett, 1932) including Schema Theory.

2.1.5 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN MEMORY

Memory can be affected by individual differences in processing speed or schemas that guide memory's reconstructive nature.
Autobiographical memory is inherently individual.

2.1.6 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY IN MEMORY

Including at least one of these:

Sebastián and Hernández-Gil (2012) discuss developmental issues in memory span development, which is low at 5 years old and develops as memory capacity increases up to 17 years old.
Dyslexia affects children's memory span and working memory, impacting their learning.
The impact of Alzheimer’s disease on older adults and its effects on memory.

2.2 METHODS

What students need to learn:

Experiments

2.2.1 Designing and conducting experiments, including field and laboratory experiments.
2.2.2 Independent and dependent variables.
2.2.3 Experimental and Null Hypotheses.
2.2.4 Directional (one-tailed) and non-directional (two-tailed) tests and hypotheses.
2.2.5 Experimental designs: repeated measures, independent groups, and matched pairs.
2.2.6 Operationalisation of variables, extraneous variables, and confounding variables.
2.2.7 Counterbalancing, randomisation, and order effects.
2.2.8 Situational and Participant Variables.
2.2.9 Objectivity, reliability, and validity (internal, predictive, and ecological).
2.2.10 Experimenter effects, demand characteristics, and control issues.

2.2.11 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Analysis of quantitative data: calculating measures of central tendency, frequency tables, measures of dispersion (range and standard deviation), and percentages.
Graphical presentation of data (bar graph, histogram).

2.2.12 DECISION-MAKING AND INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

Non-parametric tests of difference: Mann-Whitney U and Wilcoxon.
Probability and levels of significance (p≤.10, p≤.05, p≤.01).
Observed and critical values, use of critical value tables, and sense-checking of data.
One-tailed or two-tailed decisions in inferential testing.
Type I and Type II errors.
Normal and skewed distribution.

2.2.13 CASE STUDY OF BRAIN-DAMAGED PATIENTS

Including Henry Molaison (HM) and the use of qualitative data, exploring the strengths and weaknesses of the case study approach.

2.3 STUDIES

CLASSIC STUDY

2.3.1 Baddeley (1966b): Working Memory Model - the influence of acoustic and semantic similarity on Long-Term Memory for word sequences.

ONE CONTEMPORARY STUDY FROM THE FOLLOWING:

2.3.2 Schmolck et al. (2002): Semantic knowledge in patient HM and other patients with bilateral medial and lateral temporal lobe lesions.
2.3.3 Steyvers and Hemmer (2012): Reconstruction from memory in naturalistic environments.
2.3.4 Sebastián and Hernández-Gil (2012): Developmental pattern of digit span in the Spanish population.

2.4 KEY QUESTIONS

2.4.1 ONE KEY QUESTION RELEVANT TO TODAY’S SOCIETY

This is to be discussed as a contemporary rather than an academic argument.

2.4.2 CONCEPTS, THEORIES, AND/OR RESEARCH

Drawn from cognitive psychology as covered in this specification.

Suitable Examples

How can psychologists’ understanding of memory help patients with dementia?
How can knowledge of working memory be used to treat dyslexia?

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS APPROACHES

Our first lesson taught us that psychology is not based on a single belief system but comprises different approaches that propose varied explanations for human behaviour. Each approach offers a unique perspective on what drives our thoughts, emotions, and actions.

The earliest approach was the Psychodynamic (or Psychoanalytic) theory, which suggested that unconscious processes, particularly those stemming from childhood experiences, significantly shape human behaviour. This theory laid the groundwork for understanding the depth of human emotions and motivations but faced criticism for its lack of scientific rigour.

Following this, the Behaviourist approach emerged as a rejection of psychoanalysis due to its unscientific nature. Behaviourism was a breakthrough as it introduced scientific concepts and experimental methods, making psychology more empirically respectable. However, behaviourism has two significant limitations:

It dismissed the relevance of the brain, focusing solely on observable behaviour without considering internal mental processes.
It argued that the brain could not be scientifically studied due to the lack of observable evidence, effectively overlooking mental processes like memory, attention, and perception.

While behaviourism remains relevant today, particularly in understanding how our environment shapes us through reinforcement, punishment, and associations (which you'll learn more about in detail with Ms Brice), it only explains part of the human experience. It focuses on environmental factors without accounting for the higher cognitive abilities crucial to understanding human behaviour.

BIRTH OF THE COGNITIVE APPROACH

The limitations of behaviourism led to the rise of the Cognitive approach, which aimed to fill in the gaps left by its predecessor. This approach focuses on understanding how humans process information—examining memory, attention, language, perception, consciousness, and complex abilities like face recognition. The cognitive approach investigates the mental processes behind behaviour, exploring what we do, why we do it and how the brain works to produce these higher cognitive functions.s

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGISTS’ METHODS FOR INVESTIGATING THE BRAIN

Cognitive psychologists have four main methods for investigating how the brain processes mental functions such as memory and language. The choice of methods often depends on the technological advances of the time. For instance, in 1968, when scanning technologies like fMRI and PET scans did not exist, Atkinson and Shiffrin had to rely on less advanced techniques to explore how memory might be organised in the brain.

The four methods commonly used to investigate inner mental processes are:

Post-Mortem Studies of Brain-Damaged Individuals: Cognitive psychologists examine the brains of individuals who suffered from brain damage during their lifetime to understand how certain cognitive functions are affected. A classic example is the study of Tan by Paul Broca, where post-mortem analysis revealed damage to Broca’s area, associated with speech production. This early form of investigation laid the groundwork for understanding the relationship between brain areas and behaviour. Over time, as technology improved, brain scans provided more dynamic and real-time insights, leading to the development of cognitive neuropsychology.
Cognitive Neuroscience: This method involves scanning the brains of healthy individuals while they engage in specific cognitive tasks. Advanced techniques such as fMRI and PET scans allow researchers to see which areas of the brain are active during processes like memory recall, language comprehension, or problem-solving. For instance, scans show that Short-Term Memory (STM) and Long-Term Memory (LTM) are processed in different brain regions.
Laboratory Experiments: Cognitive psychologists conduct controlled lab experiments to study mental processes scientifically. These "fair tests" manipulate an Independent Variable (IV) to observe its effect on a Dependent Variable (DV). A famous example is Baddeley's encoding experiment, which investigated how STM and LTM encode information differently. Laboratory experiments are essential for testing hypotheses about how cognitive processes work under controlled conditions.
Cognitive Science and Artificial Intelligence (AI) Models: The aim is to simulate human cognitive processes by building AI models that mimic the brain's operation. Cognitive scientists can learn more about how the brain functions by replicating processes like memory storage, problem-solving, and language use. This approach helps bridge the gap between theoretical understanding and practical application by providing insights into how cognitive processes might be structured and work together.r

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Rebecca Sivyer

I am a Londoner with over 30 years of experience teaching psychology at A-Level, IB, and undergraduate levels. Throughout my career, I’ve taught in more than 40 establishments across the UK and internationally, including Spain, Lithuania, and Cyprus. My teaching has been consistently recognised for its high success rates, and I’ve also worked as a consultant in education, supporting institutions in delivering exceptional psychology programmes.

I’ve written various psychology materials and articles, focusing on making complex concepts accessible to students and educators. In addition to teaching, I’ve published peer-reviewed research in the field of eating disorders.

My career began after earning a degree in Psychology and a master’s in Cognitive Neuroscience. Over the years, I’ve combined my academic foundation with hands-on teaching and leadership roles, including serving as Head of Social Sciences.

Outside of my professional life, I have two children and enjoy a variety of interests, including skiing, hiking, playing backgammon, and podcasting. These pursuits keep me curious, active, and grounded—qualities I bring into my teaching and consultancy work. My personal and professional goals include inspiring curiosity about human behaviour, supporting educators, and helping students achieve their full potential.

https://psychstory.co.uk